Primary goal of the mission:
        The objective of Mission 2006 consists of several parts.  Over the course of the fall semester we must try to develop a way to
characterize and monitor the well-being of the Amazon Basin Rainforest Ecosystem, in other words, understand the fragile and complex
relationships between species, and devise a set of practical strategies to ensure its preservation.  This goal will be presented in 4 steps:
definition of a healthy rainforest, background of the Amazon, our plan, and methods of monitoring.

        After much discussion, the students of Mission 2006 divided into nine groups which would concentrate on specific aspects of the
project.  Later a collaboration of ideas would form the final production.  These groups include Public Relations (Legal and Political),
Flora, Fauna, Land, Water, Air, Alternative Development Strategy, Systems Interaction, and Socioeconomic.  Each team was then responsible for
understanding their subject matter relating to the Amazon Basin Rainforest.  I became a member of the Socioeconomic team (Team 10) and it was
our job to study the economy of the area and handle the financial aspect of the plan (finding grants and allotting it to the various teams
adequately).

Some aspects we decided the Socioeconomic Team should analyze:
            Tourism-ways to bring people in (is safety an issue?)
            Brazilian populations (demographics)
            Indigenous People?s perspective on the rainforest-how important?
            Ways people can benefit the rainforest
            What use does the Brazilian government and international companies have with the
               Rainforest?
            What substitutes can there be for occupations which ?require? the destruction of the
               rainforest?

Some of our objectives are:
            Our Team goals involve establishing an understanding of the socioeconomic standpoint of the region currently and then devise a plan to
improve that situation coinciding with preserving the rainforest.  We will investigate and evaluate the economic and social cost/benefit
relationships involved in preserving the rainforest based on past development.  One of our primary concerns is the native people.  We want to
ensure that by preserving the rainforest, local economies which rely more on the rainforest and its resources maintain and/or improve their
economic stability by finding counteracting opportunities.  We also want to make sure that other teams? plans are economically feasible and
we will accomplish that by understanding the economic status ourselves.

Tourism:
            Tourism is one of the largest industries of the world.  Typically it replaces one aspect of an existing economy.  For instance,
if mining stops due to the natural beauty of an area, then the tourism will probably improve because people want to see the beautiful scenery
(Goldstone).  Tourism must cater to the need of the travelers, i.e. geared towards students, senior citizens, etc, and transportation must be
adequate and accessible.  People are attracted to architecture and culture and landscape.  The Amazon Rainforest, being a very specific
wonder, thus interests people and captures their attention.  It also has significance involving numerous resources, animals, and plant
species, as well as providing an abundance of oxygen for the people of the earth.
            Due to the colonization by the Western capitalist countries, Latin America has experienced a backward development in their
economy.  In 1997, Brazil ranked 39th in top destinations but was 15th in the top tourism spenders (Harrison).  This implies then that there
is some fault in their technique of advertising or in operating their tourism destinations.  This could be due to the fact that a tourist
?boom? cannot occur where people are susceptible to illness, accidents, crime, or political violence, and since Brazil deals with safety
issues, foreigners think twice before spending lots of money to visit.

Things to consider when deciding a tourism destination or improving the existing tourism industry:
        1.  What areas can handle tourism-should it be concentrated in a specific place?   Advantages:  less destruction of other
                regions, place would become more developed to manage crowds of people and handle the local industry
               a.  Local relationship to environment-if the natives want to preserve the area and show and tell others about where they
                       live, then more progress will be made towards conservation, and the visitors will carry that respect as they tour, too.
               b.  Modifying/altering environmental conservation-increases human interest (look upon favorably) and increases value for
                       tourism.
                              i.  Maintenance of the environment is critical in establishing
                                   an environmental based tourist economy.
                              ii.  Questions to address:
                                      1.  What is the economic value of the protected area?
                                      2.  Is the tourism destroying the conservation plan?
        2.  Tourism requires some connection between the indigenous people and the tourists.  They need to have some commonality to
                attract people and create understanding in desires which appeal to the travelers otherwise won?t be as successful.
        3.  Must be financially feasible-?Who pays for paradise?? (Harrison).  If the tourism industry reflects minimal profits compared
                with the sacrifices, then other economic options may be better in enhancing the economic stability.
               a.  Cost/benefit possibilities of tourism:
                              i.  Increased profits
                                      1.  economic growth:  local hotels, restaurants, souvenir shops, travel stores
                                      2.  improves transportation and communication systems (technology)
                                      3.  increases global interaction
                              ii.  Increased salaries
                                      1.  employment:  on-site, care, management, local business
               b.  Potential problems which counter cost/benefit potential:
                              i.  Tourist accommodations-overcrowding
                              ii.  Cultural influence of  foreigners (behavior, views, values,
                                   etc. will distort the native society)
        4.  In terms of the land itself, things to note include:
               a.  The artificial attractiveness of the land through landscaping
               b.  The climate of the region combined with the cleanliness of the air, the clarity of the water, and peacefulness of the
                       atmosphere
               c.  The region?s intrinsic qualities based on nature and culture

Ecotourism:
               The purpose of ecotourism is to increase tourism while and through environmental conservation and preservation.  It usually
               involves traveling to an undisturbed place to enjoy, experience, or study the natural beauty of an area.

        Tourism can be destructive or conservative.  In my opinion, ecotourism may not be the best plan to boost the economic status
initially.  After instituting a preservation strategy, the land will be very fragile and it will take some time to fully implement all
aspects of the plan.  I am thinking that to create ecotourism immediately might disrupt our plan of preservation.  My concern includes the
effects of the visitors; their presence creates additional stresses on the environment.  The increased amount of recreation in the area may
negatively affect the wildlife; pollution in the form of trash, vandalism, food, and noise might upset animal patterns or behaviors;
transportation could cause soil/vegetation damage through pavement and the maintenance of roads; souvenirs may become pieces of the
rainforest which would inhibit our preservation design.  These destructive points, in my opinion, outweigh the benefits based on the delicate
condition of the outskirts of the rainforest currently.
        Ecotourism was tried along the coast of Brazil, on one of the islands in the Brazilian Archipelago and was unsuccessful.  They found
that the constant flow of people caused more destruction and delayed progress of conservation more than was worth improving the economy in
the long run.  Parts of the island had to close because so much damage was being done.  The natural beauty of the environment must be
maintained in order to attract people; there needs to be a balance.  This example is not to outlaw ecotourism in the Amazon Basin Rainforest
region completely nor to say that ecotourism does not have potential, I only recommend that we postpone this operation temporarily.  The
rainforest has a very intricate structure and certainly intrigues many people.  I think that after a minor degree of stability is reached by
the natives and the rainforest as consequence of our plan, ecotourism could be a very successful operation in this area.
            Perhaps in the meantime, tourism can consist of cultural enterprises.  Advertising through the architecture, history, museums,
zoos, and artwork could establish interest and draw people into Brazil until the rainforest could handle tourism.

            Although I have just argued that ecotourism should be postponed, that concept was presented in the light of a perfect world.  I am looking further into whether ecotourism would be the best way to produce money in order to preserve the Brazilian Rainforest.

More on tourism:
 
Sources of funds to initiate ecotourism:
        1.      government budgets
        2.      park entrance fees  (entrance fees are key sources of revenue because the money is instant and closely related to the success
            of the tourist attraction)
        3.      taxes on exports
        4.      private/non-profit groups
        5.      international agencies
               a.       UN Global Environmental Facility
               b.      US Agency for International Development
 
Examples of successful protected areas with entrance fees:
        1.      Rwanda (before civil war)-$1 million per year
        2.      Galapagos National Park-$700,000 per year
        3.      Canada-$1.7 billion per year from taxes on wildlife related/based tourism
               (Only spent $300 million)
 
Developing countries usually collapse due to under funding
            i.e. Benin, Africa-poor infrastructureà no money from entrance feesà not properly managedà not much tourism
 
The problem with funding/running a protected site usually arises early on in the establishment of the attraction when money needs to be
distributed in the form of salaries and materials and bills.  "It is difficult to promote intangible benefits within governments that are
short of cash for investment and operating costs" (Oliveira, 38, 2000).
 
 
Some Indigenous peoples:

Here's a taste of the vast number of Brazilian indigenous tribes.
 
Kuikuru of Central Brazil
            -Grow manioc (main job)
            -50 varieties
            -Usually plant 4-5 kinds in one farm
            -Made into flour
            -Average manioc plot = 1.6 acres à 1,400 lbs. of produce
                           because the land becomes less and less fertile due to the depletion of nutrients in the soil
                                       1st year:  10.2 tons produced
                                       2nd year:  9.1 tons produced
                                       3rd year:  6 tons produced
                                                               (Hames, 95, 1983)
            -1 of 3 Carib-speaking villages
            -Live in the tropical rainforest, near mouth of Xingu River
            -Used slash and burn technique to cultivate manioc which eventually created many savannas-not good for agriculture
            -Discovered by Europeans in 1884   (Hames, 69, 1983)
            -Woman?s responsibility
                    -Harvesting manioc
                    -Picking fruit
            -If no warfare or no hunting to do, then the men garden the manioc
 
Baniwa (a.k.a. Wakuenai) of the Northwest Amazon
            -Patrilineal society
            -Refuge for aboriginal people
            -Poor nutrients in land
            -In various stages of integration with ?regional subcultures? (Hames, 119, 1983)
            -Collect rubber
            -Arawakan speaking
            -Along Rio Isana
            -Trekking
                        -Lengthy trips to collect resources/foods form the forests and savannas
                        -Natives describe the purpose of trekking in many ways:
                                    -to collect products
                                    -to escape disease
                                    -to avoid enemies
 
Mekranoti Kayapo Indians of Central Brazil
            - (1983) 285 members of this Kayapo-speaking village/peoples
            -Located in the southern part of the Brazilian state Para
 
Txukahamae
            -Kayapo ceremonies-many have purpose of naming (Hames, 227, 1983)
                        -special names are given to children
                        -ceremonies last 3 months
                                    -songs are sung every morning and evening
                                    -food-tortoise on last day
 
Xavante of Central Brazil
            -First recorded in the 18th century
            -Had depended on wild foods and nomadic lifestyle until 1920s
                        -only planted maize, beans, and pumpkins
            -Very independent
                        -did not like when the government tried to pacify them à ended up killing government messengers and missionaries
            -4,000 Indians live in eastern North Mato Gross state
            -Habitat = open upland = plateau
            -Almost every man owns a rifle
            -Currently located on the Pimentel Barbosa reservation
            -post-contact epidemics
                        -1962-after interaction with investigators
                                    -measles
                                    -whooping cough
                                    -polio
                                    -tuberculosis
                                    -pneumonia (beginning of dry season drastic temperature change between day and night leads to respiratory problems
 
Xerente in northern Goias
            - (1983) had only several hundred members remaining
 
Arapaco of Northwest Amazon
            -Located in the lower Vaupes River (first inhabitants)
                        -drugs, gold, and diamonds
                                    -attracted Europeans
                                                -caused the slavery of the Arapaco in 1700s/1800s
                                                -1730, forced labor by Europeans and disease left only 5 villages
                        -other language groups in area
                                     -Tariana
                                     -Piratapuya
                                     -Tukano
            -Of the Eastern Tukanoan family
            -No distinct/native language (usually the Eastern Tukanoan family socially identifies with languages)
            -Initially had more than 20,000 people, now, 1979 200 members (~40 per village) (Hill, 40, 1988)
 
Wari of Rondonia
            -Santo Andre Village
                        -no roads to village
                        -only can get there by boat
            -1980s:  The Polonoroeste project à purpose to establish new agricultural colonies in Rondonia
                        -funded by the World Bank and the Brazilian government
                        -caused huge increase in deforestation rates
                        -poor people moved to the area
                                    -illegally took land from Indians à since government funded/sponsored
            -Know about insect specimens that are edible (but keep it secret)
            -Isolated "no trade, intermarriage, or peaceful relations with other humans.  Wari were unfamiliar with a number of crops and
                            technologies used by most other native peoples of the Brazilian rainforest" (Conklin, 24, 2001).
            -Today, > 2,000 people
            -Geographical location and difficult access has kept them separate, independent, and undisturbed
            -Now live in indigenous reserves
                        -1960s, government persuaded the Wari into certain areas to provide medical care and schooling
 
Uru-Eu-Wau-Wau
            -1980s, contacted by Brazilian government
            -Several hundred people
 
Not much is known about people between the Jurua and Purus Rivers (mid-Piranha River)
            -the Hi-Merima is very hostile and refuses contact
 
Indigenous people contacted but still considered isolated:
            Kanoe (Rondonia)
            Akuntou (Rondonia)
            Zo?e (Para)-1989, official contact
            Korubo (Javari River Valley)-1996, official contact
 
Fronts of ethno-environmental protection:
            Ava Canoeiro (Goias)
            Envira River (Acre)
            Guapore (Rondonia)
            Madeirrinha River (Rondonia and Mato Grosso)
            Purus River (Acre)
            Javari River Valley (Amazonas)
 
23% of tropical rainforest is protected by government as indigenous people's land
            ~1,038,000 square kilometers (http://www.socioambiental.org/website/povind/indexenglish.htm)

Possible Monitoring method:
"The health and growth of young children are sensitive indicators of the nutritional status of a community" (Hames, 359, 1983).
 
1980-Indian Brazilian Movement
            rights granted by law
There seems to be a cultural surge in protecting and maintaining Indian heritage
 
 
Brief Environmental History of Brazil:
    1970's - mass colonization of territory (land distributed to citizens with the intentions of improving their economic status);
                            UN Conference in Stockholm (Brazil and other developing nations held strong opposition to environmental propositions.  They
                                    perceived these bills as the economically stable countries preventing their economic growth and success.  Therefore,
                                    reservation was never a primary concern for these third world nations.  Now, Latin America has environmentalists tryign
                                    to influence political decisions and the general population.  Unfortunately, the environmental groups typically operate at a
                                    local level and are not very influential nationwide.  (Oliveira, 34).
    1972 - CEPRAM, the state environmental council, is the first of its kind created in Brazil
    1980's - Brazilian states generated their own environmental plans/legislation
    1985 (and 1965) - Brazil = dictatorship; many non-governmental arenas established, including an environmental division

Possible grant sources:
1.  UNESCO (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization)?s World Heritage List gives resources to protect sites, to
restore habitats, and promote domestic and international tourism.
2.  UN Global Environmental Facility
3.  US Agency for International Development

Bibliography:

Berkes, Fikret and Carl Folke. Linking Social and Ecological Systems: management practices
        and social mechanisms for building resilience.  New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

Conklin, Beth A.  Consuming Grief: compassionate cannibalism in an Amazonian society.  Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2001.

Goldstone, Patricia.  Making the World Safe for Tourism.  New Haven, CT: Yale University
        Press, 2001.

Hames, Raymond B. and William T. Vickers.  Adaptive Responses of Native Amazonians.  New York: Academic Press, 1983.
 
Harrison, David.  Tourism and the Less Developed World: Issues and Case Studies.  New York,
        NY: CABI Publishing, 2001.

Hill, Jonathan D.  Rethinking History and Myth: Indigenous South American Perspectives on the Past.  Chicago, IL: University of Illinois
        Press, 1988.

Oliveira, Jose Antonio Puppim de.  Implementing environmetal policies in developing countries:
        responding environmental impacts of tourism development by creating environmentally protected
        areas in Bahia, Brazil.  Thesis: Massachusetts Institue of Technology, Department of Urban
        Studies and Planing, 2000.

Tisdell, Clem.  Tourism Economics, the Environment and Development Analysis and Policy.
        Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc., 2001.

Website:  http://www.socioambiental.org/website/povind/indexenglish.htm