§  Estimating reduction in outflow during Younger Dryas (?)
                         -Planktonic foraminifera  1.
              §  Evapotranspiration
                          -Lysimeter
                                -Block of soil covered with vegetation, placed in container and replaced in original site
                                -Input of precipitation measured with rain gauge and drainage from base of block is recorded
                                -Block of soil repeatedly weighed, estimates loss of water by evapotranspiration 13.
                          -Eddy covariance measurement and micrometeorological estimation techniques
                                  - Eddy covariance measurement
                                            -Directly quantifies surface-atomsphere exhange of mass and energy by measuring turbulent transport of H20 vapor and heat
                                            -Meausures Latent Heat Flux (Q sub e) and sensible heat flux (Q sub h)
                                            -Sensors mounted above ground level (in Source 16 study, 42 m above ground level or 12-14 m above forest canopy)
                                            -Uses 3-dimensional sonic anemometer-thermometer (SWS-211/3K) and open-path infrared gas analyzer (NOAA-ATDD) to measure mean and fluctutating guantities of wind speed and temp. and H20 vapor
                                            -Sensors sample and output data at 10 Hz
                                            -Oriented in direction of mean wind at the upwind side of the tower to minimize potential for flow distortion from tower
                                            -H20 vaopr channel of the gas analyzer calibrated ever 2-4 weeks using portable dew-point generator (LI-610, LI-COR, inc,. Lincoln, Nebraska)
                                            -Raw H20 vapor fluctuations output as mean voltages and converted to densitites by multiplying requisite calibration constant
                                            -H20 vapor and sensible heat fluxes computed foollowing coordinate rotation of wind vectors
                                -Micrometeorological Measurements
                                            -Meausres net radiation (Q*)
                                            -Uses ventialed net radiometer (Q*7.1)
                                            -Soil heat flux meausred using heat flux transducers (n=2) buried apporximately 2 cm into surface litter layer
                                            -Air temp and vapor pressure meausred at top of tower (40 m above ground level) using relative humidity sensor (HMP-35)
                                            -Vertical vapor pressure porofile meausered using wet- and dry-bulb psychrometers at heights of 1, 4, 12, 20, 28 and 40 m above ground
                                            -Vapor pressure deficit of atmosphere (VPD) calculated as difference between saturation vapor pressure (e sub s) and actual vapor pressure (e sub a) from relative humidity sensor and/or wet- dry-bulb psychrometer
                                            -Precipitation measured using tipping-bucket rainfall gauge (2501, Sierra-Misco Inc)  16.

             §  Past Amazonian rainfall events
                         -Maslin and Burns:  Examine biochemical composition of fossilized plankton
              §  Remote flow/discharge measurement
                          -Dr. Charles Vorosmarty/U New Hampshire:  using 37 GHz passive microwave data  from NASA's Pilot Land Data System Archive, using ground based station data
                          -Used 37 GHz passive microwave radiometers to detect signals produced by variations in water height
                          -Data of river discharge produced, including input from tributaries and water height differences due to seasons
              § Global River Discharge Database (RivDIS)
                          - Ground-based measurements
              § Brazilian Departmento Nacional de Aguas e Energia Eletrica (DNAEE)
                          -Ground-based measurements
              § Large-Scale Biosphere-Experiment in Amazonia (LBA)
                          -Remote sensing
                          -Ground-based measurements
                          -Process modeling  2.
              § River's origin
                          -National Geographic Society:  Ground-based research  3.
              §Monitoring needs
                          -Remote monitoring (ie. Saltellites) more necessary because of funding cuts to ground-based monitoring  4.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

The Massachusetts Institute of Technology                               Contact:  lacooney@mit.edu

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
 
 
 
 

Research Bibliography
 

1.      Palaeoceanography  Environmental Change Research Centre

2.      Land Surface Hydrology and Water Chemistry The Large Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment in Amazonia (LBA)

3.     The source of the Amazon River was just recently discovered. Why did it take so long?  National Geographic Society

4.     Tropical Deforestation Fact Sheet   NASA Earth Observatory

5.     Effects of Deforestation

6.     Amazonia - Resiliency and Dynamism of the Land and its People  Nigel J.H. Smith, Emanuel Adilson S. Serrão, Paulo T. Alvim, and Italo C. Falesi,  United Nations University

7.    Solving the Amazon?s climate riddle  By Ginger Pinholster, SCIENCE

8.    Fish in the Trees   by Rachel Hauser, NASA Earth Observatory

9.    River Seasons  by Laura Cheshire, NASA Earth Observatory

10.  http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/gsfc/educ/science/2001/01-04-01.htm

11.  Amazon Deconstruction:  Cause and Effect    camille, charlie, hsing hsing, maya, pete, University of Washington

12.  "Applications of Hillslope Process Hydrology in Forest Land Management Issues:  The Tropical North-East Australian Experience", Mike Bonell

13.  Dictionary of Geography, Oxford University Press

14.  "WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT FOR ENERGY GENERATION PURPOSES IN STREAMS PRESENTING STRONG SEASONAL FLOW VARIATIONS - PLANNING ASPECTS",
                    Bela Petry & Doron Grull
15.  "Analysis of the Streamflow Record Extension for the Xingu River at Babaquara  Maria Elvira Pineiro Maceira and Jorge Machado Damazio

16.  Seasonal Variations in the evapotranspiration of a transitional tropical forest of Mato Grosso, Brazil  George Vourlitis, Nicolau Priante Filho, Mauro Hayashi, Jose de S. Nogueira, Fernando Caseiro, Jose Holanda Campelo

17.  Towards improving natural resources use in Eastern Amazonia through a modified sequential agroforestry system  Sa, T.D. de A.; Vielhauer, K.; Kanashiro, M.; Denich, M. and Vlek, P.L.G.

18.  Cloud condensation nuclei in the Amazon Basin:  "Marine" conditions over a continent?  Gregory C. Roberts and Meinrat O. Andreae; Jingchuan Zhou; Paulo Artaxo

19.  Rates and Processes of Amazon Deforestation  Michael Glantz, Tandy Brook, Patricia Parisi
 
 
 

The Massachusetts Institute of Technology                               Contact:  lacooney@mit.edu