Physical Environment - Hydrology

Water Availability

The Arctic Coastal Plain may seem to be abundant in water resources. In actuality however, the low precipitation limits the amount of readily available water. Most of the available water resources come from snow melt, runoff, rivers, and lakes within the area. In arctic and subarctic areas, rivers typically carry 55 to 65 percent of precipitation falling onto their watersheds. The reason for that is that the permafrost prevents the downward percolation of water and forces it to run off at (and very near) the ground surface. Consequences of the high runoff include the fact that northern streams are much more prone to flooding and that they have higher eroding and silt-carrying capabilities (Bowling et al., 1997).

Critical to the control of water runoff in the north is the cover of moss and other vegetation of the tundra, bogs and forests. A thick layer of moss acts much like a sponge lay over the permafrost to slow down the movement of water across the ground surface.

Frozen Water Formations

One primary source of water is in thermokarsts or thaw lakes. These lakes are actually thaw basins: low areas in the tundra where water from melting snow and ice collects. Thousands of square miles in the Arctic are covered by ground which has been segmented into what are called tundra polygons or ice wedge polygons. This pattern is caused by intersecting honeycomb networks of shallow troughs underlain by more or less vertical ice wedges. The ice wedges are formed when the ground contracts and splits in a manner analogous to the formation of cracks on the dry lake bed. This allows water to enter, and successive seasons of repeated partial thawing, injection of water, and refreezing cause the wedges to grow. As they grow, the strata to either side turn up to enclose the polygon, and a lake may form in the center with the raised troughs at the margins. Above the frozen region, unfrozen water saturation increases due to low hydraulic conductivity, which prevents the melting ice from draining, thus causing accumulation of water above it (Panday and Corapcioglu, 1995). During this process, pingos are sometimes formed when the pressure from the contraction of the unfrozen water pushes it up until it collects and freezes under the root mat.

All of the thaw lakes studied were very shallow; even though the lakes could be several thousand feet long, most were no deeper than 10 feet (Bowling et al., 1997).

Drainage patterns typically follow the troughs, and where they meet, small pools may form. These are often joined by a stream which causes the pools to resemble beads on a string - in fact, this type of stream form is called beaded drainage. Thaw lakes tend to be elongated perpendicular to prevailing winds caused by subsurface currents. The waves caused by crosswinds may be eating away at the peat more aggressively along the edges creating a pattern of elongation that all arctic lakes share(Bowling et al., 1997).

The amount of available water in the 1002 area has been estimated to be around 9 billion gallons.

Water Usage in the 1002 Area

Water resources are limited in the 1002 Area. In winter, only about nine million gallons of liquid water may be available in the entire 1002 Area, which is enough to freeze into and maintain only 10 miles of ice roads. Although such exploration is conducted only in winter, snow cover on the 1002 Area is often shallow and uneven, providing little protection for sensitive tundra vegetation and soils. The impact from seismic vehicles and lines depends on the type of vegetation, texture and ice content of the soil, the surface shape, snow depth, and type of vehicle.

Oil companies are withdrawing surface water faster than it can be replenished, says Steve Lyons, hydrologist with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). When an ice road melts, the water runs over the surface into streams, usually outside the original watershed from which it was withdrawn, he explains. Because the 1000-ft-thick permafrost does not allow groundwater movement between water bodies, lakes are filled only by snowmelt and may take more than two years to refill after the permitted 15% of their liquid volume is withdrawn for ice road construction (Pelley, 2001).

Surface water will also be used for potable purposes at manned facilities, equipment washing, tank cleaning, dust abatement on roads and workpads, and hydrostatic testing.

Permafrost

Examining the soil and water cycles of the 1002 region, one cannot ignore the presence of permafrost, or "permanently frozen soil," which underlies 80% of Alaska and remains a central issue in the debate about oil drilling. Permafrost has been defined as frozen ground in which a naturally occurring temperature below 0° C (32° F) has existed for two or more years (Bowling et al. 1997). On the North Slope, permafrost ranges in thickness from about 700 to as much as 2,240 feet thick, and may be as cold as -8° to -10° C.

Permafrost can be either thaw-stable or non thaw-stable, depending on the type and percentage water of the soil it is made of. Permafrost in more fine-grained soils like loess (silty) tend to thaw, sink, and create thermokarsts more often. Permafrost thaws from heat input, such as global warming or human activity, as well as the clearing of vegetation which insulates the ground.

Permafrost is affected by road dust generated by traffic on unpaved roads; snow melt due to dust deposition can lead to flooding, ponding, and hydrological changes in oil. Continuing oil and gas exploration, development, and production, construction of a natural gas pipeline, the operation and maintenance of facilities, and other activities requiring road travel would add cumulatively to the volume of road dust generated on unpaved roads (BEST, PRB, 2003). Regions of ice which have been wind-dusted are likely to undergo localized melting earlier than the neighboring non-dusted ice (Bowling et al. 1997).

There are three approaches to dealing with the permafrost problem in the construction practice. The first and most obvious is to avoid it entirely. The second is to destroy it by stripping the insulating vegetative cover and allowing it to melt over a period of years. This has the obvious drawback of requiring a considerable period of time to elapse before construction can begin, and even then, it is a good idea to excavate the thawed ground and replace it with coarse material.

The third approach, and one which is becoming more widespread, is to preserve it. This can be accomplished by building on piles to allow cold air to circulate beneath heated structures, by building up the construction site with gravel fill which insulates and protects the permafrost below, or by refrigeration to maintain low ground temperatures. This is done by utilizing thermal piles or freeze tubes, such as those used by the trans-Alaska pipeline. These devices are filled with a non-freezing liquid and act like coffee percolators. They are cooled during the winter months and draw heat from the ground to retard thawing during warm weather (Bowling et al. 1997).

In nearshore areas, ice-bonded permafrost is probably present and must be considered in the design of an offshore pipeline. But nearshore ice-wedge permafrost under shallow water, particularly along a rapidly receding coastline, is even more critical for design. Oil pipelines placed in areas of ice-bonded or ice-wedge permafrost must be heavily insulated to limit thawing of permafrost. The best location for an offshore platform is at water depths of 6.5-65 feet, to minimize ice gouging. Beyond the 6.5 foot water depth the top of the ice-bonded permafrost generally is below the surface of the seabed. Inshore of the 18-foot bottom-depth contour, ice gouging is typically less than 1.6 feet (Kutasov, 1997).

Important aspects of disturbance and recovery in permafrost regions

The physical system

Ice-rich permafrost is a major factor controlling disturbance and recovery in the Arctic. If the permafrost thaws, thermokarst can be initiated on a large scale, and a critical point is reached where it is difficult or impossible to return the site to its original state within a few decades because of continued subsidence (Walker)

Thawing of ice causes:

- hydrologic changes(impoundment of water or creation of flowing water
- thermal changes by decreasing the albedo of the surface and increasing heat flux to the site
- geochemical changes(usually increased nutrient availability)

Attributes that contribute to thermokarst

- volume of ground ice in the near surface sediments
- steepness of the terrain
- grain size of the sediments

Disturbance in areas with high amounts of ice, rolling topography, and fine-grained sediments may not stabilize even 30 years after the disturbance. Grain size and steepness can be determined from surficial geology maps and digital terrain models(DTMs)

Overall oil production and industrial activity will melt permafrost, affecting plant growth in the area.

The thawing of ground ice causes hydrologic changes due to the impoundment of water or creation of flowing water. There are also thermal changes by decreasing the albedo of the surface and increasing heat flux to the site. Geochemical changes is usually in the form of increased availability of nutrients. All of these have serious implications on the entire ecosystem. Therefore, it is not without reason that scientists have formulated the following:

The fragility of tundra to destruction is directly proportional to the ice content of the permafrost and inversely proportional to the mean ground temperature (Arctic and Alpine Vegetations: Similarities, Differences, and Susceptibility to Disturbance, Billings).

Modification of the site following disturbance

If heat flux to ice-rich terrain is increased, such as by changes in surface albedo, hydrologic conditions, thermal conductivity of the active layer, snow regime, or local sources of heat(eg. from drilling machinery or hot oil) thermokarst might likely result. The control on heat flux are complex. The radiation balance and thermal properties of the soil are affected by position, depth of the moss carpet, bulk density of the soil, vegetation cover, snow cover, and moisture regimes. Deep organic layers and thick moss carpets are good insulators against heat flux unless the organic material is saturated, as is often the case in low microsites. Physically based models of heat flux now offer predictions of changes to annual thaw depth in response to climate change. The time required for vegetation recovery and the type of vegetation that will reoccupy the site is also controlled by the thermal stability of the site. (Walker 1991).

Relation of oil drilling, permafrost and vegetation

Permafrost layer restricts the drainage of water through the soil, making it moist in the short summer growing season. It is easily broken by road construction or the seismic explosions used in oil exploration, changing the water drainage patterns of the soil and thus retention of moisture. Melting permafrost has also led to widespread damage of buildings, costly road repairs, and increased maintenance for pipelines and other infrastructure ­ impacts that will continue to grow in magnitude. Permafrost also stores large amount of ancient carbon and methane; thawing is likely to release some of this stored carbon and methane back into the atmosphere, amplifying the risk of further climate change. The boreal forest will advance northward into present coastal plain tundra, and mixed forest into present boreal forest. Forest fires and insect outbreaks, both of which have increased sharply in recent years, will further increase. If the permafrost thaws, the vegetation will in the long term dries out, altering plant communities and use by wildlife.

It has been observed that in areas where the permafrost thaws, there is a sudden rapid growth of plants, which attract more animals to feed on. However, this is only momentary. Once the permafrost thaws, temporarily there is much water for plants to grow well for like a month or two, but then the water is continuously used up and drained away as there is no layer to prevention drainage now; yet the permafrost, once destroyed, take years to resume. Therefore, a few months after destruction, water will finally be deficient and no plants can grow well even during summer when water has already been used up, drained away but no permafrost exists to trap them for the growing season. This detrimental effect on vegetation is permanent, while the vast growth of plants is just transient.

Works Cited

A)Bowling, Sue Ann, Davis, Neil, Gedney, Larry, Helfferich, Carla, Osterkamp, Tom, and Rozell, Ned (1997, September 4). Alaska Science Forum. http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/html (2003, Oct. 31).

E)Panday, Sorab and Corapcioglu, M. Yavuz, Fellow, ASCE (1995, March).  Solution and evaluation of permafrost thaw-subsidence model. Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, 121(3), 460-469.

(G) Pelley, Janet (2001, June 1). Will drilling for oil disrupt the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Environmental Engineering and Science, 35(11),  240A- 247 A.

(Y) Kutasov, IM (1997, Oct. 6). Method estimates arctic well thermal insulation efficiency. Oil & Gas Journal, 95(40), 82-85.

(H) Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology (BEST), Polar Research Board (PRB). (2003). Cumulative Environmental Effects of Oil and Gas Activities on Alaska's North Slope.

(TAPS) http://tapseis.anl.gov/

(USFWS) http://alaska.fws.gov/

Other Sources

(1)Heal, O.W. and Rosswall, T. (eds). Structure and Function of Tundra Ecosystems. Ecol. Bull. 20. Stockholm: Swedish Natural Resource Council, 1997.

(2)National Research Council, "Environmental Information For Outer Continental Shelf Oil and gas Decisions in Alaska", 1994.

(3) Fogg, G. E. The Biology Of Polar Habitats. Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press, 1998.

(4)Bourgeron, Patrick S., and Jense, Mark E., eds. A Guidebook for Integrated Ecological Assesments. New York: Springer-Verlag New York Inc., 2001.

Zhang, T., Osterkamp, T.E., and K. Stamnes. Effects of Climate on the Active Layer and Permafrost on the North Slope of Alaska, U.S.A.(1997) Geophysical Institute,
University of Alaska, Fairbanks. 

Keith, Robert F. (1999, Aug. 03). “The Ecosystem Approach: Implications for the North”. http://www.carc.org/pubs/v22no1/ecosys.htm (Nov. 5, 2003).

North Slope Borough and the Arctic Slope Regional Corporation. (1995). The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge: Its People, Wildlife Resources, and Oil and Gas Potential.

US Department of Interior (1987, April). Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, Coastal Plain Resource Assessment. http://arctic.fws.gov/refinfo.html (Oct. 18, 2003).

http://www.alyeska-pipe.com/

FEIS: Volume 3 - 4.3 Proposed Action Alternative Analysis - Routine Operations - 4.3.1 - Physiography and Geology. (Oct. 23, 2003). http://tapseis.anl.gov/documents/docs/feis/Volume3/Section4.3.pdf