BIOSENSORS: SPECIES ON GALAPAGOS

Birds

Jabiru Stork······· Jabiru mycteria (Lichtenstein, 1819)

Corals, Endangered

Lace Coral····························Crypthelia cymas Cairns, 1986

······································Crypthelia dactylopoma Cairns, 1986

······································Crypthelia eueides Cairns, 1986

······································Crypthelia gigantea (Fisher, 1938)

······································Crypthelia glebulenta Cairns, 1986

······································Crypthelia lacunosa Cairns, 1986

······································Crypthelia stenopoma (Hickson & England, 1905)

······································Distichopora laevigranulosa Cairns, 1986

······································Errina macrogastra Marenzeller, 1904

······································Lepidotheca macropora Cairns, 1986

······································Stenohelia concinna Boschma, 1964

······································Stenohelia profunda Moseley, 1881

······································Stenohelia robusta Boschma, 1964

······································Stylaster divergens Marenzeller, 1904

······································Stylaster galapagensis Cairns, 1986

······································Balanophyllia cedrosensis Durham, 1947

······································Balanophyllia galapagensis Vaughan, 1906

······································Cladopsammia eguchii (Wells, 1982)

······································Cladopsammia gracilis (Milne Edwards & Haime, 1848)

······································Dendrophyllia californica Durham, 1947

······································Dendrophyllia johnsoni Cairns, 1991

······································Dendrophyllia oldroydae Oldroyd, 1924

······································Enallopsammia rostrata (Pourtalès, 1878)

······································Endopachys grayi Milne Edwards & Haime, 1848

······································Endopsammia pourtalesi (Durham & Barnard, 1952)

······································Rhizopsammia verrilli van der Horst, 1922

······································Rhizopsammia wellingtoni Wells, 1982

······································Tubastraea coccinea Lesson, 1829

······································Tubastraea faulkneri Wells, 1982

······································Tubastraea floreana Wells, 1982

······································Tubastraea tagusensis Wells, 1982

······································Flabellum daphnense Durham & Barnard, 1952

······································Javania cailleti (Duchassaing & Michelotti,1864)

······································Polymyces wellsi Cairns, 1991

······································Pseudocyathoceras avis (Durham & Barnard, 1952)

······································Sphenotrochus hancocki Durham & Barnard, 1952

······································Caryophyllia diomedeae Marenzeller, 1904

······································Caryophyllia perculta Cairns, 1991

······································Caryophyllia solida Cairns, 1991

······································Cladocora debilis Milne Edwards & Haime, 1849

······································Cladocora pacifica Cairns, 1991

······································Concentrotheca vaughani Cairns, 1991

······································Crispatotrochus galapagensis Cairns, 1991

······································Desmophyllum dianthus (Esper, 1794)

······································Lophelia pertusa (Linnaeus, 1758)

······································Paracyathus humilis Verrill, 1870

······································Phyllangia consagensis (Durham & Barnard, 1952)

······································Polycyathus hondaensis (Durham & Barnard, 1952)

······································Polycyathus isabela Wells, 1982

······································Madrepora oculata Linnaeus, 1758

······································Oculina profunda Cairns, 1991

······································Astrangia browni Palmer, 1928

······································Astrangia equatorialis Durham & Barnard, 1952

······································Culicia rubeola (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)

······································Oulangia bradleyi (Verrill, 1866)

······································Fungia curvata Hoeksema, 1989

······································Fungia distorta Michelin, 1842

······································Fungia erosa Döderlein, 1901

······································Fungiacyathus marenzelleri (Vaughan, 1906)

······································Gardineroseris planulata (Dana, 1846)

······································Leptoseris foliosa Dinesen, 1980

······································Leptoseris papyracea (Dana, 1846)

······································Leptoseris scabra Vaughan, 1907

······································Pavona cactus (Forskål, 1775)

······································Pavona clavus (Dana, 1846)

······································Pavona gigantea (Verrill, 1869)

······································Pavona maldivensis (Gardiner, 1905)

······································Pavona minuta Wells, 1954

······································Pavona varians (Verrill, 1864)

······································Psammocora brighami (Vaughan, 1907)

······································Psammocora profundacella Gardiner, 1898

······································Psammocora stellata (Verrill, 1866)

······································Psammocora superficialis Gardiner, 1898

······································Porites lobata Dana, 1846

······································Porites panamensis Verrill, 1866

······································Madracis asperula Milne Edwards & Haime, 1849

······································Madracis decactis (Lyman, 1859)

······································Pocillopora capitata Verrill, 1864

······································Pocillopora damicornis (Linnaeus, 1758)

······································Pocillopora elegans Dana, 1846

······································Pocillopora eydouxi Milne Edwards & Haime, 1860

······································Pocillopora inflata Glynn, 1999

······································Pocillopora meandrina Dana, 1846

······································Pocillopora verrucosa (Ellis & Solander, 1786)

······································Pocillopora woodjonesi Vaughan, 1918

······································Bathypathes bayeri Opresko, 2001

······································Myriopathes panamensis (Verrill, 1870)

······································Chrysopathes formosa Opresko, 2003

······································Antipathes galapagensis Deichmann, 1941

Dolphins, Endangered

Atlantic Dolphin······················Delphinus delphis Linnaeus, 1758

Pygmy Killer Whale····················Feresa attenuata Gray, 1875

Pacific Pilot Whale···················Globicephala macrorhynchus Gray, 1846

Grey Dolphin··························Grampus griseus (G. Cuvier, 1812)

Fraser's Dolphin (Sarawak Dolphin)····Lagenodelphis hosei Fraser, 1956

Orca (Killer Whale)···················Orcinus orca (Linnaeus, 1758)

Melon-headed Whale····················Peponocephala electra (Gray, 1846)

False Killer Whale····················Pseudorca crassidens (Owen, 1846)

Bridled Dolphin·······················Stenella attenuata (Gray, 1846)

·····(Pantropic Spotted Dolphin)

Euphrosyne Dolphin (Striped Dolphin)··Stenella coeruleoalba (Meyen, 1833)

Long-beaked Dolphin···················Stenella longirostris (Gray, 1828)

Rough-toothed Dolphin·················Steno bredanensis (Lesson, 1828)

Bottlenose Dolphin····················Tursiops truncatus (Montagu, 1821)

Iguanas

Galapagos Marine Iguana···············Amblyrhynchus cristatus albemarlensis Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 (G)

······································Amblyrhynchus cristatus Bell, 1825 ·····Endangered

······································Amblyrhynchus cristatus hassi Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 (G)

······································Amblyrhynchus cristatus mertensi Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 (G)

······································Amblyrhynchus cristatus nanus Garman, 1892 (G)

······································Amblyrhynchus cristatus sielmanni Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1962 (G)

······································Amblyrhynchus cristatus venustissimus Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1956 (G)

Barrington Land Iguana················Conolophus pallidus Heller, 1903·····Endangered

·····(Santa Fe Iguana)

Galapagos Land Iguana·················Conolophus subcristatus (Gray, 1831)·····Endangered

Seahorses, Endangered

Giant Seahorse························Hippocampus ingens Girard, 1858

Seals, Endangered

Galapagos Fur Seal····················Arctocephalus galapagoensis Heller, 1904

Sharks, Endangered

Basking Shark (Sun-fish)··············Cetorhinus maximus (Gunnerus, 1765)

Whale Shark···························Rhincodon typus Smith, 1828

Tortoises, Endangered

Galapagos Giant Tortoise··············Geochelone nigra (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824)

Turtles, Endangered Sea

Olive Ridley··························Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschscholtz, 1829)

Hawksbill Turtle······················Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus, 1766)

Green Turtle··························Chelonia mydas (Linnaeus, 1758)

Leatherback Turtle····················Dermochelys coriacea (Vandelli, 1761)

Whales, Endangered

Humpback Whale························Megaptera novaeangliae (Borowski, 1781)

Common Rorqual (Razorback Whale)······Balaenoptera physalus (Linnaeus, 1758)

Blue Whale····························Balaenoptera musculus (Linnaeus, 1758)

Bryde's Whale (Tropical Whale)········Balaenoptera edeni Anderson, 1878

Coalfish Whale························Balaenoptera borealis Lesson, 1828

Lesser Rorqual (Minke Whale)··········Balaenoptera acutorostrata Lacépède, 1804

Sperm Whale···························Physeter catodon Linnaeus, 1758

Pygmy Whale···························Kogia breviceps (Blainville, 1838)

Dwarf Sperm Whale·····················Kogia simus (Owen, 1866)

Blainville's Beaked Whale·············Mesoplodon densirostris (de Blainville, 1817)

Ginkgo-Toothed Beaked Whale···········Mesoplodon ginkgodens Nishiwaki & Kamiya, 1958

Cuvier's Beaked Whale·················Ziphius cavirostris G. Cuvier, 1823

Frogs, Not Endangered

······································Microlophus albemarlensis (Baur, 1890)

······································Microlophus delanonis (Baur, 1890)

Conservation Issues:

1. Inbreeding

   1. Inevitable in small populations over time

   2. Causes Inbreeding Depression: reduced reproduction and survival

   3. Most recorded extinctions occur in island populations

   4. Mansy island populations are considered inbred

   5. Minimized by immigration: introducing individuals from unrelated populations

      1. Causes Outbreeding Depression: reduces reproductive fitness

      2. Outbreeding Depression affects less than Inbreeding Depression

2. Accumulating deleterious mutations

   1. Become common sometimes in small populations

   2. Reduces reproductive fitness

   3. Cryopreservation possibly prevent occurance

3. Losing genetic variation (small populations)

   1. Depend on effective size, which is determined by

      1. Number of mature adults

      2. Variations in family size

      3. Inequalities in sex ratio

      4. Fluctuations in numbers over generations

   2. Loss is cumulative over generations

   3. Variation required for evolution

   4. Environmental change causes natural selection

   5. Outbreeding species have more genetic variation

   6. Island populations tend to have less variation

4. Genetic adaptation to captivity (effect on reintroduction)

   1. Tameness

   2. Poor predator avoidance

5. Outbreeding effects

6. Population fragmentation

7. Taxonomic uncertanties

Invasive Species:

1. 90% of introduced species aren't invasive

2. Entry

   1. Plants

      1. Private Landscaping

      2. Agriculture

      3. Hitchhikers (Ship ballast)

   2. Animals

      1. Sports (Fishing, Hunting)

      2. Pets

      3. Hitchhikers (Ship ballast)

3. Likely Sites of Invasion

   1. Simpler the ecosystem,less biotic resistance, less stable

      1. Islands prone

         1. many unique species

         2. low species density

   2. High levels of anthropogenic disturbance

      1. Near agricultural areas

      2. Near roads

      3. Turnover of open space

      4. Invasives more adapted to the area

4. Effects

   1. Factors

      1. Abundance (density)

      2. Special characteristics

   2. Change traits/behavior of natives

      1. Diet

      2. Shape

      3. Size

   3. Change natives' population size

      1. Acquire limited resources

   4. Change natives' genetic composition

      1. Hypridization causes

         1. Introgression

         2. Genetic Pollution

         3. Possibly extinction of native species

Spreading

Species increase nonlinearly, S = kA^z., where S = number of species, A = island area, and k and z are fitted constants. z tends to be bigger for isolated archipelagos.

MacArthur-Wilson equilibrium theory:

S_equilibrium = IP/(I + E), where P = original source pool for species, I = max. colonization rate on empty island, and E = maximum extinction rate when P species are on the island. Smaller islands tend to have higher S_equilibrium values.

N = population density, t = time, r = population increase rate, K = carrying capacity, D = movement by diffusion, and x = position from invasion origen

as t → ∞, C → constant

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