BIOSENSORS: ABIOTICS: OUTBREAKS FROM PUBLIC WATER SYSTEMS
Table II-1.--Comparison of Outbreaks and Outbreak-Related Illnesses From Ground Water and Surface Water for the Period 1971-1996 \1\ \2\
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Outbreaks in Outbreaks in
Water source Total outbreaks\1\ Cases of illnesses CWSs NCWSs Total CWS\4\ Total NCWS\4\
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Ground........................... 371 (58%) 90,815 (16%) 113 258 43,908 112,940
Surface.......................... 216 (33%) 469,721\2\ (82%) 142 43 10,760 2,848
Other............................ 56 (9%) 10,625 (2%) 29 19 .............. ..............
[[Page 30206]]
All Systems\3\................... 643 (100%) 571,161 (100%) 284 320 54,668 115,788
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\1\ Modified from Craun and Calderon, 1994, plus 1995-1996 data.
\2\ Includes 403,000 cases of illness from a single outbreak in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1993.
\3\ Includes outbreaks in CWSs + NCWSs + Private wells.
\4\ Safe Drinking Water Information System, 1998.
Table II-2.--Sources of Waterborne Disease Outbreaks, Public Ground Water Systems, 1971-1996 1,2. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Percent of Percent of Percent of
Type of contamination Total total CWSs total NCWSs total
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Source...................................... 274 86 53 68 221 92
Untreated................................... 150 47 20 26 130 54
Disinfected................................. 122 38 31 40 91 38
Filtered.................................... 2 1 2 3 0 0
Distribution System............................. 35 11 23 29 12 5
Unknown Cause................................... 9 3 2 3 7 3
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Total............................................... 318 100 78 100 240 100
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\1\ Source water could not be identified for 29 CWSs and 19 NCWSs with outbreaks, and thus these systems are not included in the table.
\2\ Excludes outbreaks caused by protozoa and chemicals.
Table II-3.--Etiology of Outbreaks in Ground Water Systems, 1971-96,
CWSs and NCWSs
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Causative agent Outbreaks Percent
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Undetermined............................ 232 63
Chemical................................ 22 6
Giardia................................. \1\ 21 6
Cryptosporidium......................... \1\ 4 1
E. histolytica.......................... 1 1
Total Protozoa.......................... 26 7
Hepatitis A............................. 18 5
Norwalk Agent........................... 16 5
Total Virus............................. 34 9
Shigella................................ 30 8
Campylobacter........................... 10 3
Salmonella, non-typhoid................. 10 3
E. coli................................. 4 1
S. typhi................................ 1 1
Yersinia................................ 1 1
Plesiomonas shigelloid.................. 1 1
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Total Bacteria.......................... 57 15
===========================
Total................................... 371 100
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\1\ Ground waters with Giardia and Cryptosporidium are regulated under
the SWTR and IESWTR. These systems would likely not be considered
ground water systems for purposes of this rule.
Table II-4.--Causes of Outbreaks in Ground Water Systems, 1991-1996
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Percent of
Number of Cases of outbreak-
Cause outbreaks illness related
illnesses
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Untreated Ground Water..................................... 18 2924 51
Distribution System Deficiency............................. 6 944 17
Treatment Deficiency....................................... 17 1260 22
Miscellaneous, Unknown Cause............................... 3 568 10
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Total.................................................. 44 5696 100
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\1\ Excludes protozoa and chemicals.
Table II-7.--Some Illnesses Caused by Fecal Viral Pathogens
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Enteric virus Illness
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Poliovirus............................. Paralysis.
Coxsackievirus A....................... Meningitis, fever, respiratory
disease.
Coxsackievirus B....................... Myocarditis, congenital heart
disease, rash, fever,
meningitis, encephalitis,
pleurodynia, diabetes melitis,
eye infections.
Echovirus.............................. Meningitis, encephalitis, rash,
fever, gastroenteritis.
Norwalk virus and other caliciviruses.. Gastroenteritis.
Hepatitis A virus...................... Hepatitis.
Hepatitis E virus...................... Hepatitis.
Small round structured viruses Gastroenteritis.
(probably caliciviruses).
Rotavirus.............................. Gastroenteritis.
Enteric Adenovirus..................... Respiratory disease, eye
infections, gastroenteritis.
Astrovirus............................. Gastroenteritis.
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(Data from the 1994 Encyclopedia of Microbiology, Underlineindicates
disease causality rather than association)(Lederberg, 1992).
Table II-8.--Some Illnesses Caused by Major Waterborne Bacterial
Pathogens
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Bacterial pathogen Illnesses
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Campylobacter jejuni................... Gastroenteritis, meningitis,
associated with reactive
arthritis and Guillain-Barre
paralysis.
Shigella species....................... Gastroenteritis, dysentery,
hemolytic uremic syndrome,
convulsions in young children,
associated with Reiters
Disease (reactive
arthropathy).
Salmonella species..................... Gastroenteritis, septicemia,
anorexia, arthritis,
cholecystitis, meningitis,
pericarditis, pneumonia,
typhoid fever.
[[Page 30213]]
Vibrio cholerae........................ Cholera (dehydration and kidney
failure).
Escherichia coli (several species)..... Gastroenteritis, hemolytic
uremic syndrome (kidney
failure).
Yersinia entercolitica................. Gastroenteritis, acute
mesenteric lymphadenitis,
joint pain.
Legionella species..................... Legionnaires Disease, Pontiac
Fever
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(Data from the 1994 Encyclopedia of Microbiology, Underline indicates
disease causality rather than association)(Lederberg, 1992).
Fecal Indicators:
Indicators
E. coli
Dies faster, less mobile than other pathogens
Enterococci
Dies faster, less mobile than other pathogens
Coliphage
Two Types
Somatic coliphage
Male-specific coliphage
Infect E. coli bacteria
Problem: not all shed coliphage (only 2.3%) and septic tanks are small
C. perfringens
About 10 \6\ organisms per liter
Protective spores (endospores) survive longer than most pathogens
Problem: seldom present when other indicators are
Disinfection
Time necessary
contact time
Disinfectant concentrations
Microorganisms present
pH
Water quality
Water temperature
Methods
virus
UV
Membrane process: filtration
microbes
Membrane process
Table III-9.--Disinfection Studies Using Ozone, Membrane Filters and UV on Viruses
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Studies conducted Effectiveness Additional notes
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Disinfectant Virus studied Reference E & date Log removal CT Residual Comments
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\4\ Ozone....................... Poliovirus......... Roy et al.,1982.... 4.................. \1\ 0.6........... N safety factor = 3.
Poliovirus......... Herbold et al.,1989 4-6................ .008.............. N T = 10 deg.C.
Kaneko, 1989....... 4.................. 5................. N
enterics........... Finch et al.,1992.. 4.................. 3................. N
HAV................ Hall & Sobsey, 1993 3.9-6.0............ 0.167............. N Also MS2.
Herbold et al.,1989 4-6................ 0.22.............. N T = 10 deg.C.
Vaughn et al,1990.. 4.................. 0.40.............. N T = 4 deg.C.
MS2................ Finch et al.,1992.. 2.7-7.............. 7.2............... N T = 22 deg.C.
Finch et al.,1992.. 4.................. .013.............. N T = 22 deg.C.
RO.............................. 0.5 nm............. Jacangelo et \2\ 100% removal... 50-70% recovery... N MWCO0.5 nm.
al.,1995.
MS2................ Adham et al.,1998.. 1.4-7.4............ N/A............... N
NF.............................. 0.5-13 US EPA, 1993....... \2\ 100% removal... 60-80% recovery... N MWCO 200-400
nm. Daltons.
UV\3\ \4\...................... MS2................ Snicer et al.,1996. 4.................. 87.4-93........... N Ground water.
Roessler & Severin, 4.................. 63.... N ..................
1996.
HAV................ Wiedenmann et 4.................. 20 N ..................
al.,1993.
Battigelli et 4.................. 16................ N ..................
al.,1993.
Wilson et al.,1992. 4.................. 39.4.............. N Also Rota SA11,
Poliovirus 1.
\3\ \4\ UV continued............ Rotavirus.......... Roessler & Severin, 4.................. 25.... N ..................
1996.
Poliovirus......... Harris et al.,1987. 4.................. 120............... N Safety factor = 3.
Chang et al.,1985.. 3-4................ 30.... N ..................
Rotavirus SA11..... Battigelli et 4.................. 42................ N Approximately 4-
al.,1993. log.
Chang et al.,1985.. 3-4................ 30.... N ..................
Coxsackie B5....... Battigelli et 4.................. 29................ N Approximately 4-
al.,1993. log.
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\1\ CT values are values for 15 deg.C and a pH of 6-9, unless otherwise noted.
\2\ Removal based on pore size.
\3\ Inactivation measured by IT, rather than CT. IT is the UV irradiance multiplied by the contact time.v
\4\ Table adapted from Technologies and Costs for Ground Water Disinfection (USEPA, 1993)[[Page 30238]]
Table V-7.--Average Annual Household Cost for GWR Options for CWS Taking Corrective Action or Fixing Significant Defects
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Sanitary
survey and Multi-barrier Across-the-
Size categories Sanitary triggered option board
survey option monitoring (proposed) disinfection
option option
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100............................................. $29.86 $67.19 $62.48 $191.87
101-500......................................... 11.23 15.02 18.95 81.38
501-1,000....................................... 5.72 6.29 6.25 38.79
1,001-3,300..................................... 2.99 2.91 3.39 23.45
3,301-10,000.................................... 1.39 1.46 2.74 16.78
10,001-50,000................................... 0.62 0.59 0.62 4.87
50,001-100,000.................................. 0.30 0.70 1.01 10.37
100,001-1,000,000............................... 0.32 0.20 0.27 1.66
Average......................................... 2.45 3.34 3.86 19.37
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[[Page 30249]]
Table VI-1.--Annual Compliance Costs for the Proposed GWR by CWS System Size and Type
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System size/population served
CWS system type -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
100 101-500 501-1,000 1,001-3,300 3,301-10K
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Publicly-Owned.................. $825 $934 $1,238$ $1,950 $4,480
Privately-Owned................. 799 933 1,449 1,730 5,358
All Systems..................... 805 933 1,328 1,893 4,652
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Table VI-4.--Average Annual Household Costs for GWR Options for CWS Taking Corrective Action or Fixing
Significant Defects
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Sanitary survey Across-the-board
Size categories Sanitary survey and triggered Multi-barrier disinfection
option monitoring option option (proposed) option
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100................................. 29.86 67.19 62.48 191.87
101-500............................. 11.23 15.02 18.95 81.38
501-1,000........................... 5.72 6.29 6.25 38.79
1,001-3,300......................... 2.99 2.91 3.39 23.45
3,301-10,000........................ 1.39 1.46 2.74 16.78
10,001-50,000....................... 0.62 0.59 0.62 4.87
50,001-100,000...................... 0.30 0.70 1.01 10.37
100,001-1,000,000................... 0.32 0.20 0.27 1.66
Average............................. 2.45 3.34 3.86 19.37
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Table VI-5.--Microbial Methods
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Analytical methods for source water monitoring
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Indicator Method\1\
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E. coli................................ Colilert Test (Method 9223B)
\2\ \3\
Colisure Test (Method 9223B)
\2\ \3\
Membrane Filter Method with MI
Agar \4\ \5\
m-ColiBlue24 Test \4\ \6\
E*Colite Test \4\ \7\
May also use the EC-MUG (Method
9212F) \2\ and NA-MUG (Method
9222G) \2\ E. coli
confirmation step Sec.
141.21(f)(6) after the EPA
approved Total Coliform
methods in Sec. 141.21(f)(3)
enterococci............................ Multiple-Tube Tech. (Method
9230B) \1\
Membrane Filter Tech. (Method
9230C) \1\ \8\
Enterolert \3\
Coliphage.............................. EPA Method 1601: Two-Step
Enrichment Presence-Absence
Procedure \9\
EPA Method 1602: Single Agar
layer Procedure \9\
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\1\ The time from sample collection to initiation of analysis may not
exceed 30 hours. Systems are encouraged but not required to hold
samples below 10 deg.C during transit.
\2\ Methods are approved and described in Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater (20th edition).
\3\ Medium available through IDEXX Laboratories, Inc., One IDEXX Drive,
Westbrook, Maine 04092.
\4\ EPA approved drinking water methods.
\5\ Brenner, K.P., C.C. Rankin, Y.R. Roybal, G.N. Stelma, P.V. Scarpino,
and A.P. Dufour. 1993. New medium for the simultaneous detection of
total coliforms and Escherichia coli in water. Appl. Environ.
Microbiol. 59:3534-3544.
\6\ Hach Company, 100 Dayton Ave., Ames, IA 50010.
\7\ Charm Sciences, Inc., 36 Franklin St., Malden, MA 02148-4120.
\8\ Proposed for EPA approval, EPA Method 1600: MF Test Method for
enterococci in Water (EPA-821-R-97-004 (May 1997)) is an approved
variation of Standard Method 9230C.
\9\ Proposed for EPA approval are EPA Methods 1601 and 1602, which are
available from the EPA's Water Resources Center, Mail code: RC-4100,
..1200 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20460.[[Page 30261]]
Related Links:
Biosensors: Abiotics
Biosensors: Abiotics: Tables of Approved Methods