1. “El Nino Tightens its Grip on the Galapagos.” New Scientist. 25 April 1998. Columbia Earthscape. December 1999. 26 September 2004. <http://www.eartscape.org>.

The islands are the Galapagos, situated in the Pacific Ocean roughly 1000 kilometers west of mainland

Ecuador

· Endemic genera of cacti include Brachycereus and Jasminocereus, the lava and candelabra cactus, respectively.

· Flamingos, whose diets include crustaceans, tiny fish, and algae, can be found wading in brackish lagoons. Greater flamingos are primarily seen on Floreana and other southern islands.

· A change in ocean temperature associated with an episodic disruption in atmospheric circulation led to a precipitous decline in the local penguin population. The Galapagos penguin population declined alarmingly during 1972 and 1998, when nutrients and fish were less abundant due to warmer surface waters associated with an El Niño event.

· The islands were officially discovered in 1535 by the Spanish missionary Fray Tomas de Berlanga, the Bishop of Panama. His ship veered off course while on a journey from Panama to what is now Peru.

· The volcano of the westernmost island of Fernandina erupted 1988, 1991 and 1995, but there are no permanent human settlements on this island.

· Several plant species are endangered due to decimation by goats and competition with non-native vegetation. Invasive plants such as quinine and guava trees, and invasive animals such as goats, feral cattle, and the cottony cushion scale insect are contributing to the endangered status of native plant species such as the endemic daisy tree and the Floreana flax.

· El Junco Lake on San Cristobal island (at 270 meters in diameter) is the only large freshwater lake in the Galapagos archipelago.

· The Pinta island subspecies of Galapagos Giant Tortoise (Geochelone elephantopus abingdoni) are survived by a single male named "Lonesome George". Attempts to mate Lonesome George with female tortoises of the closest subspecies have not been successful.

· Naturalist Charles Darwin (a native of Shrewsbury, England) recounted his explorations in "Voyage of the Beagle", and Chapter 17 is primarily concerned with the Galapagos.

Barkstrom, Bruce R. Satellite view of the Galapagos. 5 May 2003. NASA. November 25, 2004. <http://nasa.gov>

Low impact villages have been sought after for many places, including this example from the Fiji Islands. The Montefort Boys School near Suva, the capital, was designed with the intent of being entirely self-sufficient and creating no waste.

Technology used to create low waste impact: anaerobic biodigestor – reinforced concrete container that used oxygen reducing anaerobes to create organic biogas from pig waste that can fuel household heaters and small appliances. The nutrient enriched effluent is then sent to algae ponds, which act as feed for the livestock and nourish the soil for crops of vegetables for the self-sustaining village. A fresh-water pond produces fish that act as a source of income for the school.

Klee, Robert. “Zero Waste System in Paradise.” BioCycle Journal of Composting and Recycling 40.2 (February 1999): 5. <http://www.environmental-expert.com/magazine/biocycle/february/article4.htm>.

This idea is applicable to all areas with population that uses packaged goods and produces waste. Biodegradable waste is a special polymer of plastic that is “programmed” to biodegrade after about 60 days or less, depending on the compound. Bioplastics are reported to be CO2 neutral, reduce fossil fuel necessity, a sustainable product, easily produced, and a way to produce jobs for those in the surrounding area. Obviously production of bioplastics would produce some waste, so it may not be advisable to set up an actual factory on the islands, but if goods imported to the islands were packaged in bioplastics, waste would be reduced. *Things to look into: would the bioplastic decompose faster in a tropical environment, what materials are needed for making them, what is the cost of the process and purchasing this type of plastic, what all can be made from it*

Handzik, Stefan. “Biodegradable Materials as a Strategic Element for a Sustainable Development.” Umwelt- und Systemburo, Environmental Consulting Office. February 1999. <http://www.environmental-expert.com/articles/article422/article422.htm>.

A plethora of non-governmental organizations that may be prospective supporters of the Galapagos International BioPreserve the Mission 2008 group is creating can be found at http://www.idealist.org. These organizations may include radical environmentalists and others along those lines, but if funding can be found, where better to get it than people who really want to help in their own way?

Grassroots approach to ecology in Ecuador emphasizing "sustainability, community self-determination and regional self-reliance." There are many reports on what the team is doing in Ecuador on the site. Some work they have done includes environmental education at local schools, monitoring species, and researching energy/ waste/ water systems. The people employed are local community members who are paid through free housing and meals. We hope that if the Ecuadorian government allows them to participate in their preservation activities, they will let our biopreserve do the same.

This organization works on conservation of Galapagos, in particular San Cristobal, by providing skills and education for local residents and tourists.

· Extracurricular classes for children in English and environmental education during term time.

· Continuous adult English classes in the evenings, to park wardens, fishermen, police and tour guides.

· Summer camp for children to learn English and become involved in environmental activities.

· Special activities involving the community, including mural painting, coastal clean ups, presentations and other environmental awareness projects.

Santiago island has/had a severe problem with feral pigs endangering endemic species on the island, such as tortoises and land-nesting birds. San Cristobal has a similar issue, though I don’t think* quite as severe. The park rangers and Charles Darwin research foundation took many steps to reduce the number of pigs on Santiago, and successfully reduced the population to almost nothing. Unfortunately, their method was essentially just a hunting tactic, in which crews of armed employees would go on week or longer hunting expeditions to shoot all of the pigs that could be found. By 1996, over 18,000 pigs had been eradicated from the island. Our plan for San Cristobal is instead to round up the remaining feral pigs on the island and develop a pig farm. This would great jobs, provide food for the tourists and the inhabitants, and the waste could be used in a “bio-digestor” for power

A typical hog factory farm has several metal barns, each containing hundreds to thousands of animals confined cheek to jowl. The animals may never see sunlight and spend their lives standing on slatted meal floors, beneath which their feces and urine are flushed. The manure is piped into open-air manure lagoons, where it is stored until it can be pumped out to irrigate fields. A lagoon may be the size of several football fields. Industrial-scale pig farming thus entails enormous increases in the concentration and quantity of manure generated at single sites. Because the scale of factory farms is so great, enormous quantities of excess manure are now being spread on farmlands, posing threats to drinking water and fisheries. Runoff and spills from factory farms have precipitated water pollution disasters in many states. In Maryland and North Carolina, pollution from chicken and hog factory farms is believed to have contributed to outbreaks of Pfiesteria piscicida, a contaminant that kills millions of fish and causes skin irritation, short-term memory loss, and other cognitive problems in humans. Pathogens such as Salmonella, E. coli, Cryptosporidium, and fecal coliform bacteria can be 10 to 100 times more concentrated than in human waste. Another threat to water quality comes from ammonia, which causes algal blooms and fish kills. Ammonia released from feedlot lagoons and spray fields into the air can be deposited more than 50 miles away. Factory farms also pose threats to air quality, They emit methane gas, a factor in global climate change (U.S. EPA estimates that methane emissions from livestock manure constitute about 10 percent of total emissions in the country), and hydrogen sulfide, which causes flulike symptoms in humans and, at high levels, leads to brain damage.

On traditional family farms, pigs live in spacious barns with straw bedding that absorbs manure, or they root about outside and leave their manure to decay in a pasture or open lot. The Animal Welfare Institute (AWI) has established a set of Pig Husbandry Standards that codifies these advantages, and an increasing number of small farms are subscribing to the AWI standards. The standards include the following requirements:

* Sows must be able to build nests, and pigs must be able to root, explore, and play.

* Well-managed pastures are recommended. When animals are sheltered in barns, they must be given straw or materials suitable to be used as bedding.

* Animal factory practices-such as intensive confinement of animals in crates and cages-are prohibited.

* Large-scale animal factory owners or operators who commit only a portion of their operation to humane management are not accepted into the program.

* The routine use of antibiotics to promote growth or productivity or to control or mask disease is prohibited.

* Each farm must be a family farm-one on which an individual or family owns the hogs, depends upon the farm for a livelihood, and participates in the daily physical labor of caring for the animals and managing the farm.

(Portions of this story are adapted, with permission, from

America

's Animal Factories: How States Fail to Prevent Pollution from Livestock Waste, a report developed by NRDC. For more information, please visit the NRDC Web site at <http://www.nrdc. org>.)

Located 1000km off the coast of Ecuador, the Galapagos archipelago offers the world a unique view of the natural and exotic. These islands that spurred Darwin’s revolutionary theory on evolution and natural selection, offer the scientific community a living laboratory, but also offer tourists a host of wonders that cannot be seen anywhere else in the world. Ecuador has the potential to be an economic leader of South America, but political tensions and economic instability have prevented this from occurring. Amidst all of this confusion, over use threatens the Galapagos’ fragile ecosystem. Demand for sea cucumbers and fish have left the ocean populations devastated. Expanding numbers of tourists and immigrants create need for expanding the urban settlements and tourist attractions, thereby imposing on the as-of-yet untouched environs on the islands. Growing numbers of marine transportation vehicles increase petroleum energy use on and around the islands, which is the leading source of pollution. This is only a small piece of the great threat facing the Galapagos at this time.

MIT Course 12.000, also known as Solving Complex Problems and Mission 2008, has been assigned the challenge of addressing these problems and designing an ideal solution for the preservation of the Galapagos. As part of the third objective of Mission 2008, we have the specific challenge of creating an “idealized” village for the archipelago.

In order to approach the designing of an “idealized village,” the first step is defining the ideal for which we strive to reach. To justify these decisions, a little background information about the structure of the islands may be beneficial.

Although many islands make up the archipelago, the majority of the population of 20,000 live on three islands: Santa Cruz, Isabela, and San Cristobal. The highest percentage of the population, about 10,000 people, resides in Puerto Ayora, on Santa Cruz. The capitol, Puerto Baquerizo Moreno, on San Cristobal has about 5,500, with a total island population near 6,000. Isabela, although the largest island geographically, has about 2,000 people living mostly in Puerto Vilamil. Floreanna has a population of about 80 people. Many of the other islands are uninhabited, though some have tourist sites and many experience illegal camping. (More on this subject here.)

In light of this population set-up, the ideal solution would be to leave the existing villages and towns in place, but to encourage a more ecologically minded running of the towns. This approach to the problem is justified because the damage already done in the Galapagos cannot be reversed, but the prevention of further devastation can only help. If the sources of endangering behavior are stopped, then the first step to allowing the ecosystem to rebuild and repair itself can begin. Our plan can be accomplished through minor regulations and the establishment of eco-friendly processes for municipal projects and daily life.

In order to create an ideal village, the people living in the village must be the main concern, second only to the welfare of the ecosystem. This section will cover the aspects necessary for a town or village to adequately provide for its residents. Included in each section is a summary of what is the current situation on the islands and what a proposed solution would be to make the process more efficient, safer for the island ecosystem, or both.

In conclusion, the ideal village would minimize impact caused by the human inhabitants while helping to improve their standard of living in order to preserve the Galapagos. Key methods in accomplishing this are through educating the people in the Galapagos about the consequences of all actions and the importance of their islands, establishing municipal systems for the people in order to lower the impact the islands will sustain over time, and encouraging that regulations be upheld either through clarification or funding to enforcement organizations in order to help the islands run smoothly. The Galapagos archipelago is a unique and fragile environment that we are trying to save from further harm. Through the creation of this city structure, the wellbeing of the islands can hopefully be maintained and protected.

Report on Proposed Improvements for Water Supply and Wastewater Management on the Galapagos Islands

Third Draft

Amanda Morris, Erika Erickson, Aleksandra Hosa & Aleksandra Kopczynska

November 28, 2004

I. Past Record

Few of the Galapagos Islands have fresh water, and those that do, get water from rainfall or groundwater. Lack of water is a major social problem. San Cristobal has a scarce supply but it is good quality because it comes from surface water. During the dry months between August and January, it is known to have water shortages. Santa Cruz is unique in that it has sufficient quantity of water to sustain its current human population of 10,000, but the water quality is problematic. Water extracted from the well is affected by salt pollution. Isabela has a limited water supply and poor water quality since it also is affected by seawater. Leakages in water pipes add to contamination and stress on the water supply. Over half the water carried through pipes in Santa Cruz and San Cristobal are lost due to leakages.

The water needed each year in Santa Cruz (pop. 9,920), San Cristobal (pop. 5,682), and Isabela (pop. 1,474), and Floreana (pop. 88) are 724,160, 414,786, 107,602, and 6,424 m³ respectively. Most of the water is imported. The population is expected to continue to grow, calling for measures to conserve and improve water supply.

In the city of Puerto Ayora, Santa Cruz (Figure 1), the water is contaminated with bacteria because no sewer system exists and most residents dump their waste into two crevices that carry water to the city. There have been several cholera outbreaks in the past as a result. The sewer system in San Cristobal is outdated and in Isabela, although there is a new wastewater treatment plant and piping system to almost all homes, the piping system is contaminated. About half the population has septic tanks.

II. Proposed Improvements

a. Construct underground sewer system.

This is the best option for managing waste on the Galapagos Islands because it is the most reliable and efficient method for containing and transporting waste to a waste treatment facility. We realized that such extensive construction could disrupt the sensitive ecosystem and explored another option of installing more septic tanks throughout the city. However, further investigation showed that the number of septic tanks possible in a given area is limited by the drain field. Too many septic tanks will cause too much drainage to occur in a given area, bringing about contamination. We also found that it is possible to install a sewer system with minimal impact on the environment through the use of subsurface characterization and horizontal drilling. Modern geophysical techniques based on the response of geomedia to various segments of the electromagnetic spectrum, seismic and/or acoustic fields, or other potential fields can detect the location of already existing subsurface structures, such as electrical wires and water pipes. With this data, a route for sewage pipes can be easily chosen. If houses are located both sides of the road, the ideal location for sewage pipes is in the center of the street. The pipes connecting houses and the main should be about 4 inches in diameter, and the main should be 8 to 12 inches in diameter. A typical material for sewer pipes is iron. Manholes should be placed every 25 feet.

b. Upgrade monitoring and maintenance system of already installed septic tanks.

We suspect that the current septic tanks in the cities are neglected and only add to underground water contamination. Therefore, they should be monitored and maintained more carefully and consistently. Septic tanks must be emptied every three years, and the sludge transported to a wastewater treatment plant, where it is treated with woodchips and lime and converted into a nutrient-rich fertilizer. An alternative is to replace the current septic tanks with more efficient ones that can break down material faster or with ones that do not self-drain; however, it makes more sense to extend the sewer system to houses with septic tanks and remove the tanks, instead of installing new septic tanks because the sewer system is a better system altogether.

c. Construct wastewater treatment plant.

The Solar Aquatics System (SAS) is a wastewater treatment method well-suited to the Galapagos Islands cities. It is capable of treating 22 to 4500 m³ per day, which serves 100 to 20,000 people, the rough population range on the Galapagos. Isla Santa Cruz has approximately 10,000 people, San Cristobal has around 6,000 people, and Isabela has around 1,500 people. Annual waste production in tons on Santa Cruz, San Cristobal, Isabela are 3,511.30, 1,286.35, and 284.61 respectively. These numbers are expected to increase by around 50% by the year 2020. Removal efficiencies for total suspended solids, BOD, and ammonia nitrogen are 99%, 99%, and 98% respectively. It works by processing waste in self-adaptive aquatic environments housing plants, snails, bacteria, and other microorganisms. These aquatic environments are contained in ten translucent tanks in a greenhouse, so they would not introduce any foreign species to the islands. It can handle seasonal septic waste and has the potential for water reuse for irrigation. The cost of construction would be about ___; however in the long term it is cost effective. See Figure 2.

d. Implement system of water and sludge reuse through farming and irrigation.

Water reuse will conserve freshwater supply by making use of potentially large volume of lower quality water for irrigation. More than 50% of the water consumed is directed toward agriculture. On Isla Santa Cruz, this much water is the total consumption of water and this much water is used for farming. On Isla San Cristobal, here are the figures. Here are the figures for Isabela. Recycling sludge as fertilizer has potential for increased crop yield because it is extremely rich in nutrients and will decrease need for chemical fertilizers. Organic matter constitutes approximately 85% of all wastes produced in human settlements. At the moment only about 5% of solid wastes that households generate in the industrialized world is biologically digested to recover nutrients. Theoretically it is possible to use up to 85% of solid wastes as recyclable resource (Niemczynowicz). Disadvantages of water and sludge reuse on farms is that there is a potential health hazard in using lower quality water and sludge on crops that are not cooked before eaten, such as fruit or tomatoes. Sludge should not be used on root plants such as carrots because these types of plants are particularly vulnerable to viruses not removed during wastewater treatment. Cultural reasons may also prevent farmers from reusing wastewater on their land. This is where education can play an important role. Water cannot be reused if motor oil is present.

e. Repair leaks in water pipes.

Because more than half of the water carried through pipes is lost due to leaks, sealing the leaks would conserve freshwater supply. Modern geophysical technologies can help locate leaks in the pipes eliminating the need to physically disturb surface and subsurface structures. Electromagnetic resistivity and ground penetrating radar are two techniques. One method of electromagnetic reisistivity detects changes in electrical conductivity that occurs between subsurface zones, thereby detecting water leaks. Once leaks have been located, localized repairs are then possible. Several popular sealing grout mixtures can be employed. Sealants such as Bentonite-Cement can be directed to stop a leak with a hydraulic conductivity of 10 to the (minus 7)/second.

f. Install corrugated rooftops, cisterns, and mini purification systems on all buildings for personal rainwater collection. Construct larger cisterns on farms.

Household reservoirs would diminish amount of water drawn from municipal water supply and reduce pressure on water grid during peak consumption periods. Personal reservoirs would be advantageous during dry months and water shortages. Corrugated roof works by channeling rainwater to cistern, the size of which should be governed by amount of rainfall in that area. Water purified by solar disinfection. This system already in use in some areas - should be extended to more.

g. Install meters on pipes carrying water into buildings to measure water intake.

In order to provide incentive to decrease unnecessary water consumption, meters should be installed on water pipes carrying water into buildings. These can also be installed in house basements. People would then pay by the amount of water they consume rather than by a flat rate. Currently on each islands, these are the rates they pay. ADD FIGURES.

h. Increase education efforts to raise public awareness and support.

Reform plans will not be successful if people do not do their daily part to help conserve water and contain sewage. Even with new sewer pipes and a wastewater treatment plant, the environment will still be polluted if people continue to throw trash onto the street. Especially with a newly implemented system, education is necessary to teach people where to throw away their trash, how to reuse wastewater and sludge, and why it is important to conserve water. If education has a positive effect on younger generations, the future will be in better hands.

IV. Cost Estimate & Sources of Funding

The costs of constructing a sewer system and wastewater treatment plant and maintaining them are inevitably high, but because they are necessary for the sake of human health and environmental preservation, it should not be difficult to find support. First, a cost estimate must be made by civil and/or environmental engineers. Cost includes not only construction but also hiring of highly skilled operators. Possible sources of funding are:

a. UNESCO

Environmental component of United Nations that may lend funds to assure wildlife preservation on Galapagos Islands, especially because the Galapagos is already on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

b. UNDP

United Nations Development Program is aimed toward helping nations increase long term sustainability. Already working with Galapagos to develop renewable energy, preserve biodiversity, and develop economy.

c. World Bank, European Bank, European Union, Global Environmental Facility, International Maritime Organization

Already funding at least 20 Caribbean countries to develop waste management system.

d. ORGALA

Collection of NGO’s (designed by the Mission 2008 Las Iguanas political team) whose primary focus is to provide funds for sustainability and conservation projects on Galapagos Islands

III. Conclusion

It is necessary to implement a freshwater and wastewater management strategy. Otherwise the quantity and quality of water will continue to deteriorate on the islands, which would have disastrous effects on wildlife and human health. Although construction of a sewer system and wastewater treatment plant might seem expensive and temporarily inconvenient for the inhabitants, the long-term benefits far outweigh concerns. The improvements we have recommended will decrease waste pollution, make water reuse a possibility, conserve the freshwater supply, and improve the overall quality of life in the human settlements.

V. References

Assessment of Barrier Containment Technologies, U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Aug 1995. Product of an International Containment Workshop. Baltimore, MD, Aug 29-31, 1995.

“Growing Together: Our Local Sustainable Agriculture Program Continues to Achieve Success.” Charles Darwin Foundation. 2001. 27 Nov 2004. http://www.darwinfoundation.org/social/ag2001.html

Hardenbergh, W. A. and Edward B. Rodie. Water Supply and Waste Disposal. Pennsylvania: International Textbook Company, 1963.

Hollingsworth, A. M.I.T. Environmental Engineering Major. Interview. 2004.

Ishizuka, Kozo, Shigeru Hisajima, and Darryl R.J. Macer, eds. “Innovation of traditional and new technology to solve problems created by high technology.” Traditional Technology for Environmental Conservation and Sustainable Development in the Asian-Pacific Region. 1996. http://www.biol.tsukuba.ac.jp/~macer/TTEC/TTECFR.html

Koutsandreas, J. Retired member of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Interview. 26 Nov 2004.

Ley, Deborah. “An Assessment of Energy and Water in the Galapagos Islands.” Jul 2003. http://galapagos.solarquest.com/documents/SandiaGalapagosReport200307.pdf

Maharaj, Utam S. and Tawari Tota-Maharaj. “High-Risk Groundwater Development Option for Small Island Developing States (SIDS).” Caribbean Water and Waste Association 10^th Annual Conference.

“Management of wastes in small island developing States.” Progress in the implementation of the programme of action for the sustainable development of small island developing States, Report of the Secretary-General – Addendum. 1998. http://www.unep.ch/islands/dd98-7a2.htm

Niemczynowicz, Janusz. “Innovation Trends in Urban Water Supply and Sanitation.” http://www.iris.ba.cnr.it/sksb/Innovation%20Trends%20in%20Urban%20Water%20Supply%20and%20Sanitation.htm

“Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States.” UNEP Islands Web Site. 1994. 27 Nov 2004. http://islands.unep.ch/dsidspoa.htm

“Puerto Ayora street map.” www.TheBestofEcuador.com. http://www.thebestofecuador.com/map_payora.htm

“Solar Aquatics System (SAS) for Wastewater Purification.” New Environmental Technologies Evaluation (NETE) Program. http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/programs/3354e29.pdf

“Solar Aquatics System.” OCETA Environmental Technology. http://www.oceta.on.ca/profiles/earthtech/icon.html

United Nations Environmental Programme, South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission. “Source Book of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation in Small Island Developing States.” Small Island Water Information Network. 2002. http://www.siwin.org/reviews/swr0004/swr0004b43.html

“Waste management.” EUROPA Environment. 2003. http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/env-act5/chapt2-8.htm

Septic system design: a tank with an inflow pipe and an outflow pipe used in the place of central sewage system

The typical tank has two chambers, one containing aerobic bacteria oxygenated by airflow in pipes caused by flushing, and the second chamber containing anaerobic bacteria. The bacteria digest waste in the wastewater as it flows into the tank via inflow pipe. Indigestible materials sink to bottom of tank as sludge. The broken down materials are in aqueous solution that slowly move through the system, with the materials being broken down in a floating layer called the scum layer. The aqueous solution flows through the outflow pipe into the surrounding earth in a leech field. The surrounding soil filters the water as it percolates down as groundwater recharge. The type of soil the leech field has is very instrumental in the efficiency and effectiveness of the septic tank. Soil composed of high percentages of clay will not work well with a septic tank because it does not allow water to flow through it, thus causing back-ups in the septic tank. Soil with large particles will not filter the wastewater thus possibly contaminating the groundwater supply. Because approximately half of the houses in Puerto Ayora have septic tanks, this could in part contribute to the cholera outbreaks that have occurred there, paired with the leaky water pipe system.

In the interview with Mr. Erickson, he advised against a traditional septic tank system for every household in the city, as the city structure is compact. For a four person family, the general size of a septic tank is 20,000 gallons, which needs pumped of sludge every 2 to 3 years depending on usage. The ground surrounding the septic tank and the leech field must be able to support the volume of water flowing through the system, otherwise it becomes too saturated with waste water that, although very fertilizing, isn’t going to drain sufficiently and may contaminate groundwater supply by over-saturation. Thus, depending on the soil, only a few septic tanks can be functioning in an area at a time.

A second option would be for non-draining septic systems, that must be pumped quite frequently. The response in the interview advised against this as well, due to the fact that the amount of digging to put in very large tanks for septic systems would like be more extensive than a sewage system and the overall time vs. power efficiency of frequent pumping would negate the environmental and civil good of leaving the streets intact by foregoing a traditional sewage system.

As far as the sewage system is concerned, it is advised that a traditional small-town gravity flow system be established to minimize energy consumption by tanks. As Puerto Ayora is conveniently established on an incline towards the coast, a water treatment plant could be built near the coast outside of town. Depending on flow rate and usage in specific areas, the typical house would need a 4-inch diameter pipe leading from house to street, where the main vane is put under the stone streets, which will be easier to replace and repair than pavement streets. The main vane would typically be a 10 to 12-inch diameter pipe leading to the water treatment plant.

Traditional wastewater treatment plants are very complex and require a great deal of space for their construction. In addition, they are not very attractive. A system could occupy up to half a square mile depending on its waste-load for the treatment area.

Brain, Marshall. Urban Wastewater Systems. HowStuffWorks Inc. 2004. <http://people.howstuffworks.com/sewer3.htm>.

Aquaculture of sea cucumbers

Definition

Aquaculture- business of cultivating marine or freshwater food fish or shellfish, such as oysters, clams, salmon, and trout, under controlled conditions.

Aquaculture in the US

Current research goals
- Genetic improvement of aquatic species
- Aquatic animal health management
- Reproduction and early development
- Sustainability and environmental compatibility of aquaculture
- Quality and safety of aquaculture products for consumers

Offshore aquaculture

Because there are few regions on San Cristobal where aquaculture can be implemented, it would make most sense for us to implement offshore aquaculture
Major issue- leasing regions in the ocean- who is allowed to start agriculture developments in certain areas?
- Possible solution- designate a certain region of the ocean to be an agricultural zone, and have the government lease it out as if it were land.

Resources required for offshore aquaculture

Marine based
- Cages for breeding, growth and development, and containment.
- Moorings, food distribution system, and cage cleaners.
- Service boats
Land based
- Service vehicles
- Fish transport vehicle

Importance of sea cucumbers

The threat to the sea cucumbers is being driven by culinary demand. Sea cucumbers are highly prized delicacies in many East Asian cuisines, says David Challinor, the Smithsonian Institution's science adviser. A high-quality food, sea cucumber flesh is 50%-60% protein.

Of approximately 1200 species found worldwide, approximately two dozen are considered edible. In the Galapagos, only Stichopus fuscus is fished commercially.

The soft-bodied echinoderms live on the ocean floor, ingesting mud and other sediments from with they extract their food. In bottom sediments rich in organic matter, sea cucumbers can account for 90% of the biomass, according to Elliott Norse, chief scientist of the Center for Marine Conservation in Washington, DC.

Sea cucumbers play a vital role in ocean ecology, says David Pawson, a scientist at the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History. Like earthworms on land, they turn over bottom sediments, which helps free nutrients. In the food chain, the sperm, eggs, and larvae of sea cucumbers are eaten by organisms from single-celled animals to fish, Pawson adds.

Scientists are concerned by the sea cucumber harvesting, because studies show that when there is overfishing or when a natural die-off occurs, sea cucumber numbers can be depressed for years. At Chuuk Atoll in Micronesia, for example, populations still have not recovered from overfishing before World War II, according to a 1993 study by Robert Richmond of the University of Guam.

Aquaculture

Scientists and conservationists remain concerned. Even though proposals have been made to raise sea cucumbers in captivity as Japan does, the process is not simple. It requires overcoming what Pawson calls "endless difficulties"--finding sexually mature animals, getting them to mate in the lab, finding the right food for larvae, and knowing when to release the sea cucumbers.

Sources

Posadas, Benedict. “Economic Feasibility of Offshore Aquaculture in the Gulf of Mexico.” [http://www.msstate.edu/dept/crec/publish/offshore%20aquaculture%20economics%202003.pdf]

Fletcher, Kirsten. “Marine Aquaculture Zoning: A Sustainable Approach in the Growth of Offshore Aquaculture.” [http://www.olemiss.edu/orgs/SGLC/zoning.htm]. March 26, 2004.

“USDA Agricultural Research Service.” [http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/programs/programs.htm?NP_CODE=106].

In order to make the Galapagos a more environmentally sound city structure, the methods of energy consumption, energy source, waste and water management and general opinion of being eco friendly must be changed. In order to make the village structure more favorable to maintaining the natural laboratory, here is a proposal:

1. Set up a time cushion for people to make changes and adapt to new standards and criteria of living in the Galapagos.

- For example, allow everyone 5* years to make the transition in his or her homes and businesses.

- Type of Energy needed for powering the residence, business, or public location and limits of consumption. Solar Panels will be provided by the government, and rental-type system will generate funds for payment of them and upkeep.

- Waste Disposal methods – No dumping allowed, all waste must be separated into organic and inorganic wastes for proper disposal.

- Method of Renovation -- Most restructuring of buildings must be approved by INGALA, so a strategy for this would need to be determined as well.

- Determine course of best environmental action for a hotel (keeping in mind its size and capacity for visitors) to establish limits for the hotel’s consumption and harm of island resources.

- For example: Each hotel has 5 years to switch to solar and wind power, replace existing vehicles with hybrid or low-pollutant vehicles, set up system and practice in-hotel recycling for waste, etc. Inspections of the hotel to make sure these guidelines are in place or in progress will determine who is in violation of the transition efforts. Businesses that are quick on the uptake can advertise “Eco-Friendly” or something during the 5 years so it would be sort of a competitive edge, encouraging others to quickly follow suit in order to impress customers.

- Individual living quarters would also have 5 years to make the transition of power methods, waste disposal method, etc.

4. All buildings built after enactment of the regulations must build according to specified practices to make entirely eco-friendly buildings.

*5 Years may be unrealistic. This figure was used throughout the section, but it may be a more likely estimate of 10 years for everything to be implemented. This timeline would of course depend highly on funding and worker supply.

The United States Department of Agriculture offers services to US farmers in response to the depression of the 1930’s. This is sort of a summary of how it works.

1. Market Stability Measures: In order to prevent over planting one year and under-planting the next, the government allows a certain number of acres of each crop to be planted nation-wide each year. These acres are monitored through Insurance practices – the USDA only insures a certain number of acres of each crop each year dependant on foreseeable market size (International and Domestic Markets).

2. Crops are insured for bad weather and other damages – If a specified yield is not achieved in the harvest of the crop, the farmer is paid reparations for insured acres and then small subsidies for the overall farm.

3. Price Supports: To prevent drastic rises and falls in the market, levels are put in place as the minimum and maximum cost per bushel when selling to a Co-op, which is where most of the grain is sold. The Co-op then sells it to foreign markets or domestic producers through the government. If a crop is overproduced, the Farmer will be paid to keep some of his yield or possibly not to harvest at all. When a crop is in high demand, farmers will be rewarded for contributions, but levels are set so as not to encourage monopolies.

If modified and added to the Quotas system discussed in the section about the economy, these together could help to prevent black-market activity and economic instability for fisherman when fishing levels are reduced in the Galapagos.

In order to understand what we are dealing with in the Galapagos, not having been there yet, information regarding the cities will help to get an idea of what the villages look like and function like. Much of this information is provided by tourist websites. Though this isn't a scientifically reliable source, the general information about facilities on the island is helpful to us to know. This will tell about power consumption, tourism amounts, and whether the living conditions are inadequate for people.

Transportation Required: To see Cerro Tijeretas (35 minutes away overlooking neighboring town), Playa de Oro – small town with a few hotels north of Puerto Baquerizo Moreno (swimming is popular), Playa Punta Carola (surfing), 20 minute walk South leads past the airport and to La Loberia, a coast with trails

Transportation: Irregular Boat schedules offered from San Cristobal to Santa Cruz and Isabela to Santa Cruz, also Island hopping flights available

Bi-monthly cargo carriers will take passengers for a small fee, but not frequently done.

Attractions: Around Santa Rosa and Puerto Ayora some tourist attractions including Butterfly Ranch, Lava Tubes, El Chato, mangrove swamps, Conway Bay and Las Bachas, Cerro Dragon, Guided tours and small streams and inlets for “bathers”,

Knowing what a place looks like can help a lot in finding what to research next. Therefore, pictures of many things on the Galapagos helped steer us in the direction of finding solutions to our problems. These images have direct links below. This is not information for specific research purposes, just for our general information and amusement.

Because much of the Galapagos population has arrived in the past 15 years, the background of the citizens is very diverse. A large boom of immigration occurred in the mid-90’s, when waves of Ecuadorian refugees fled to the Galapagos in order to find better jobs and get-rich-quick schemes (McFarland). Because the education policies in Ecuador and the Galapagos do not encourage ecological training, many of the current residents do not have any sense of the consequences of their actions. For example, the enforcement agency SICGAL made three times more confiscations of illegal items in luggage from residents than any other group of people (ie. tourists and other visitors) when residents have less than 25% of the luggage coming onto the islands (Kerr). This common act of bringing things to the islands is not always intentional. Cargo is a prime place for rodents and other invasive species to hide such that when unloaded on the islands, the alien species are introduced into the island ecosystem.

A large problem with ecosystem contamination of this sort is seen in the transport of produce. In an effort to reduce the need for transport of food onto the islands, the Charles Darwin Foundation is encouraging the agricultural projects on the islands to strive for self-sufficiency. According to an interview with resident of the Galapagos and Ministry of Agriculture worker, Byron Fonseca, the Galapagos can almost provide completely for itself, except most residents choose not to buy local produce. Although improvements are being made in shipment quarantine, the spread of invasive species has not been completely eliminated. A large factor in this is lack of funding for inspection stations and training and no permanent base camp for inspections. Additionally, the Ministry of Agriculture has had a history of personnel strikes and lack of workers (Kerr).

Additional problems with invasive species arise when considering the cattle that have been brought to the islands. Feral pigs and goats have been wreaking havoc on the natural flora of Santa Cruz, San Cristobal, Santiago, Isabela, and Floreana. These animals are serious predators and very aggressive (McFarland). Santiago had a severe problem with goats and pigs, so sent out teams of park rangers to shoot the pigs. Thousands were killed and the problem on Santiago has been almost completely taken care of (Darwin Foudation), but is this the best method? One idea for the management of these cattle species is to establish pig farms. The feral pigs would need to be rounded up, but once in containment, these would provide food for the residents and tourists, while relieving the islands of the stress of these invasive animals. Plant species used for crops have been known to jump from fields to the surrounding areas, making mutant species of plants that compete with the natural flora. This is part of the reason 36 types of vascular plants are currently endangered in the Galapagos (McFarland). All of this strain on the natural ecosystem is slowing pushing plants and animals to extinction.

Or order to deal with all of these threats, our plan for the agricultural situation on the Galapagos is to support the projects currently underway through the Charles Darwin Foundation, as well as increasing education of local farmers and consumers of the benefits of green methods and buying local products. For example, by educating the farmers in the Galapagos about crop rotation and grazing portioning, the fertility of the soil can be conserved for many more years, preventing the need to abandon a plot of land for a new area.

Agriculture requires large tracts of land, a commodity in high demand in the Galapagos. In 1979, the amount of farmland was decided to be 24,000 hectares, and only varies slightly because the rest of the land belongs to the Galapagos National Park (Ley). In order to limit the expansion of farming area, the Galapagos National Park must not sell more land for development. If sustainable agricultural practices are improved, as the Charles Darwin Foundation is currently working towards, more can be grown in less space and with smaller impact on the islands.

The Charles Darwin Foundation is also working towards providing water to farms during the dry season of the year. Implementing rainwater cisterns on farms and building a pipeline or trench system from the Solar Aquatic System will provide farms with more water without removing so much from the source wells used throughout the city. Of the current water usages in the Galapagos, the small percentage of the population that is farming is using almost half of the water pumped. The total water demand in the Galapagos is about 2,500,000 cubic meters per year, but almost exactly half of that is used for Agricultural purposes (Ley). By channeling the clean water from the SAS to water towers in the countryside, extra stress on city wells can be alleviated.

One more problem with the agricultural scene in the Galapagos is that more and more of the residents are seeking rural homes and jobs (Kerr). Although residences in a rural environment may seem desirable, this will be a spread of inhabited areas on the island, thus increasing surface area of human affected areas. This will need to be prevented through clarification in regulations on building and inter-island migration.

McFarland, Craig and Miguel Cifuentas. “Case Study: Ecuador.” <http://www.aaas.org/international/ehn/biod/galo1.htm>.

Suzi Kerr et al. “Migration and the Environment in the Galapagos.” 2003. <http://econwpa.wustl.edu:8089/eps/othr/papers/0403/0403001.pdf>.

“Growing Together.” Charles Darwin Foundation. 2001. <http://www.darwinfoundation.org/social/ag2001.html>.

Ley, Debora. “An Assessment of Energy and Water in the Galapagos Islands.” 2003. <http://galapagos.solarquest.com/documents/SandiaGalapagosReport200307.pdf>.

“Special Regime for the Preservation and Sustainable Development of the Province of Galapagos.” Charles Darwin Foundation, Inc. 2002. <http://www.galapagos.org/members/SpecialLaw.html>.