fishing

COMPLETED FISHING OUTLINE
Compiled and Organized by: Peter Mulligan

I. The Marine Environment

A. Climate

1. June-December is the cool, cloudy and dry season, whereas December-June is the rainy, warm, and sunny season. The climate is largely due to current. (A1)

2. El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Events

B. The Ocean Environment

1. Intersection of Cocos and Carnegie submarine regions form a platform in the deep ocean. There is a combination of warm and cool water mixing with two different currents. Thus, the western shores have an average sea surface temperature about 5-10 degrees F cooler. The abundant algae blooms and fishes found in the waters typify that of a more temperate climate. (F1) The tidal ranges are generally small, on an average of 1.8m and about 2.6m at new and full moons. (F2)

C. Intertidal Zone

1. The upper tidal zone is sparse with life due to the hot sun exposure.

2. Smaller kelp and algae abound. Marine iguanas often feed on them. Many varieties of fish, including the unique four-eyed blunny that can respire air for up to two hours, are found here. Small morey eels also abound. (F2)

D. Marine Zone

1. A large variety of fish can be found in the Galapagos, approximately 309 species from 91 different families. A common division is indigenous fish versus fish that migrated here. The indigenous fish tend to have a low vagility (or ability to transport in the open ocean) and a short larval life, implying that they can’t cross the deep ocean gap to the mainland. (F1)

2. Sharks such as the hammerhead (most common), whale, tiger, and many smaller predators can be found, though they tend to be less aggressive. Large manta and sting rays are also present. (F2)

3. Whales used to be very common until massive whaling efforts in the 19^th century. (F2) However, due to the protective Whale Sanctuary that covers entire marine area of Ecuador, whales are still fairly common and varieties range from sperm whales and killer whales to blue and humpback whales. (C6 and F2)

a) Sperm whale females have a lower rate of conception with warmer sea temperatures (C5)

E. Coral Reefs

1. Coral reefs are threatened by prolonged El Niño events, which cause many of these other factors that jeopardize them, including rapid salinity, sea level, or sediment changes. In particular, El Niño events can cause sea-surface temperature anomalies, which causes coral bleaching. (Z1)

2. Besides natural dangers, which are the greatest threat, coral reefs are endangered by anchor damage and fisherman activities as well as the collection of corals for sale as curios. (C5)

3. Seriously threatened by bioerosion, coral recruitment rates need to increase or else coral reefs may be eliminated entirely. (C2)

II. Fishing Regulations

A. Galapagos Marine Resource Reserve (GMRR)

1. There are four basic zones within the Reserve. The General Use Zone is for sustainable fishing activities. The Artisanal and Recreational Zone is for residents’ benefit. The National Marine Park zones are for human activities that don’t interfere with the environment, and the Strict Nature Reserves don’t allow human access. (B3)

B. Special Law for the Galapagos (1998)

1. It extended the outer marine reserve from 15km to 40km

2. Proposed to regulate artisanal fishing and tourism

3. Little progress has been made in their implementation since mid-2001 (B3)

C. Galapagos Marine Resources Reserve (GMMR) – Management Plan

1. Never been implemented for the most part

2. Clauses: establish special protection zones, tourism zoning, and other zones

a) No export fisheries (B2)

III. History and Current Events

A. History to the Conflict

1. Important Dates

a) “1936- The Galápagos National Park (GNP) established by Executive Decree # 31

b) 1959- Boundary (97% of total area) ratified by decree #17, to include all islands except those colonized on 20 July,1959

c) 1968- Boundaries finally established; effective park administration began

d) 1974- UNESCO World Heritage Site

e) 1984- Recognized as a Biosphere Reserve under the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Program

f) 1986- The Galápagos Biological Marine Resources Reserve (GMRR) established by Executive Decree #1810-A to include all waters within 15 nautical miles (extended to 40 n.m. in 1998) of a baseline joining the outermost points of the Islands; the zoning plan was not approved till 1992

g) 1998- Special Law for the Galapagos (# 278) published and a management plan for the GMRR drawn up

h) 2002- Poza de las Diablas on Isabela I. declared a Ramsar Site of International Importance” (B3)

2. Conservationist Efforts

a) From the early 1970s to the early 1990s, conservationist sought to define boundaries to the park and keep people out, ignoring the cares and concerns of the local population. These conservationist groups didn’t have the economic might nor the accountability to keep mismanagement problems at bay and other groups out of the park. (D6)

b) The UN Conference on Environment and Development brought new approaches, and in particular, a realization that local concerns should be heard. Efforts were revitalized as they sought to seek a sustainable development solution that incorporated the indigenous human population in the decision process to work toward a peaceful coexistence. (D6)

c) This new approach has included a management by coalition of various interest groups including natives, the tourism industry, scientist, politicians, and fisherman. (C4)

3. Indigenous Population

a) Recent census puts population at around 18000 (C7)

b) Only major settlement on Floreana is Puerto Velasco with 700 people,while Española
is virtually unpopulated. (A1)

c) While two out of every three workers are in the tourism industry, it is the fishing industry, which currently employs about 13% of the population, that is responsible for the massive immigration to the islands. (D6)

B. Current Events

1. In February 2004, 30 scientists were held hostage.

a) Fisherman wanted the right to use semi-industrial techniques and equipment. Their actions caused the Ecuadorian government to cave in again, as the matter will now be reviewed by a fisherman-friendly committee.

b) Earlier modifications to the GMRR plank were supposed to have appeased fisherman with longer seasons and the right to harvest sea cucumbers. (C7)

2. On September 23, 2004, the Shark Research Institute (SRI) released a statement calling for the boycott of the Galapagos after Ecuadorian president Lucio Gutierrez replaced Galapagos National Park (GNP) Director Edwin Naula with Fausto Cepeda. SRI points to Naula’s record of defending the park and his scientific background, while decrying Naula as “pro-fishing, pro-development and anti-conservation.” (E1) SRI also claims that the president has been bowing to pressure from fisherman, while the tourism industry is much more important economically and that it should take a stand.

a) Cepeda is the ninth GNP director since Gutierrez became president in 2003.

b) The park rangers have gone on strike in support of Naula, and SRI plans to cancel to missions if Naula is not reinstated. (E1)

3. In March 1997, a park ranger was shot by illegal fisherman while inspecting their site and sea-cucumber processing plant on Isabela. (B3)

4. In 1995, a bill passed the through the Ecuaorian Congress that would have put politicians in control of the management of the GNP but was vetoed by the president. However, riots by fishermen ensued. (C4)

5. From November 13-17, 2000, violence was turned toward conservationists by lobster fisherman. They demanded a higher lobster quota for the season after the 50 ton limit was reached only halfway into the four month season. They received an extension to 80 tons. (F4)

C. Jessica Oil Spill

1. In January 2001, the tanker Jessica ran aground off San Cristobal, pouring most of its 900,000L of oil into the ocean and threatening many species in the local vicinity. Fortunately, most of the spill was contained and did not spread heavily to other parts of the islands. (B3)

IV. The Fishing Industry

A. Fishing Threats

1. Three main fishing threats:

a) Illegal foreign fishing (mostly Asiatic)- large vessels mainly in the pelagic zones and often inside GMRR

b) Modern Ecuadorian mainland ships and some foreign ships with Ecuadorian permission- They are often found in the pelagic zone and coastal fishing and are legal but how much do they obey the rules

c) Growing interest from mainland Ecuador to sell products on the international market- Immigration and use of local fisherman as labor, and local fishermen are abandoning traditional methods for these short-term, rapid profit opportunities. This is causing an influx of poor mainland fisherman. (B2)

2. The mainland coastal waters have been overfished for decades and their stocks are mainly depleted, leaving the Galapagos as Ecuador’s last great fishery if it wasn’t protected.

a) Fishing is most intense in the Bolivar channel between Isabella and Fernandina.
(C4) In particular, Isabella is the center of illegal fishing. (D1)

B. Sea Cucumbers (Isostichopus fuscus)

1. They are echinoderms that feed on organic material in the ocean mud.

2. There are an Asian delicacy used to thicken and flavor soups. (F4)

C. Sport Fishing

1. Since early 1995, sport fishing has been legal within the GMRR due to the influence of the tourism industry. The target fishes are dolphinfish and tuna, with the program called “tag-and-release.” However, the lack of patrol and enforcement, in addition to the high value of tuna and the fragility of dolphinfish, means that sport fishing may have nearly the same negative effect on the environment that fishing has. (B2)

D. Fishing quotas

1. In 1994, the National Fisheries Development Council, a body developed from the
commercial industry, lifted the ban on fishing, allowing an interim period of 4 months to fish for sea cucumbers, lobsters, sharks, groupers and other species. (B3) The sea cucumber quota was met only 20 days into the season, while other off-limits species were also collected; so in response the government ended the experimental period.

2. In early 1995, fishermen took control of several Park buildings demanding a reopening of the fisheries. (B3)

3. In 1999, the government once again opened fishing season for sea cucumbers and shark fishing, and once again, Park buildings and the Charles Darwin Research Station were
sacked by fishermen demanding a longer season and increased quotas. (B3)

E. Shark Fins

1. The monofilament nets, long lines, and large sunes catch more than just sharks.

2. While only the fins are taken, the sharks are mostly helpless without their fins.

3. These are also an Asian delicacy used in soups. (F4)

V. Monitoring

A. Establishing Fishing gear parameters

1. A research study used a dual underwater camera system to measure the selectivity of fishing gear. Selectivity is a measure of the selection of fish with certain characteristics, in particular size, in the catch probability. If the catchability of a certain fishing gear is known, then population abundance can be calculated, and in particular abundance of fish with certain characteristics.

2. Catchability is defined through three parts:

a) The probability of a fish encountering the net or fishing gear close enough to be detected.

b) The probability that a detected fish will contact the net.

c) The retention rate- the probability that a fish that contacts the net will be caught. (F6a)

                        3. My comments: This information not only may help with keeping track of fish
                        populations, but may also be useful as a standard by which we can define the types of
                        fishing gear that may be used in the Galapagos and also define which fish populations are                         targeted.

B. Measuring Predation rates

                        1. This study focused on the effect that cod predators had on the juvenile herring
                              population. Estimates of the prey rate for cod could be made from gastric evacuation                               models of cod. It was also found that cod, which also ate capelin, had a greater effect on
                              herring populations when the cod to capelin ratio was low. By an independent estimate of                                 the natural mortality of herring, the effect of cod predation on herring mortality could be                                calculated. (F6c)

2. My Comments: Knowing the effect of predators on prey not only gives us a better picture of the food web in the ocean but can help us measure the effect of humans on the population.

C. Current methods

1. Shark and fish populations are generally counted by scuba divers going down to a certain depth and counting numbers within a set area and time period. This method is rather unreliable and doesn’t provide continuous data.

a) My comments- Underwater cameras should be utilized.

2. Rangers often arrive at illegal fishing sites after they have been abandoned already. Their modus operandi is patrolling in dinghies, going ashore, looking for camps, and cleaning up debris.

a) They are severely underfunded

b) In 2004, they received a USAID grant from the CA based group Wild Aid, which brought new engines and radar equipment in addition to a new seaplane. The group helps to train and finance the rangers.

c) In 1995, the schooner Guadelupe River was donated, the second major ship available for usage by the park rangers. (D1)

VI. New Directions

A. Study of Factors that led to population decline of the greenlip abalone in Australian fisheries.

1. The catch of the abalone varied from year to year as population numbers fluctuated. Two hypotheses were developed.

a) Cyclical environmental factors impacted the studied subpopulation to reduce recruitment success. (in this case, about every 6 years)

b) Aggregate or collective behavior was critical to the subpopulation sustainability.

1) Exploitation targets them first, and they also have the greatest contribution to reproductive success. (F6b)

2. My Comments: This information will be critical for proper management of the fisheries in order to sustain the fish populations from year to year.

B. Study done to understand behavior of fisherman in small-scale fisheries

1. The decisions of small-scale fisherman are not random and depend on their ultimate aims. They consider resource availability and previous revenues before selecting or switching targets, though switching targets can be costly. Fishers must also consider when and where to fish. (F6d)

2. My Comments: This information is essential in developing a management strategy for the fisheries on the island. If we can let the fisherman know fish population information, we might avoid overfishing of one species.

VII. Works Cited

A1) Galasam International Travel Agency. Ó2004 www.galapagos-islands.com

B2) The Galapagos Coalition. http://www.law.emory.edu/PI/GALAPAGOS/EnvironmentalFrameset.html

B3) United Nations Environment Programme. World Heritage Sites. http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/galapago.html

C3) Whitehead, H. “Sea surface temperature and the abundance of sperm whale calves off the Galapagos Islands: Implications for the effects of global warming” ASFA 3: Aquatic Pollution and Environmental Quality. International Whaling Comm., Cambridge (UK). Forty-Seventh Report of the International Whaling Commission (Covering the Forty-Seventh Financial Year 1995-1996). pp. 941-944. Annual Report. International Whaling Commission [Annu. Rep. Int. Whaling Comm.]. Vol. 47.

C4) Reaka-Kudla, ML; Feingold, JS; Glynn, W. “Experimental studies of rapid bioerosion of coral reefs in the Galapagos Islands”. ASFA 3: Aquatic Pollution and Environmental Quality. Coral reefs. Heidelberg etc. [CORAL REEFS], vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 101-107, 1996

C5) Merlen, G. “Use and misuse of the seas around the Galapagos Archipelago” ASFA 3: Aquatic Pollution and Environmental Quality. Oryx, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 99-106, 1995

C6) Pearce, F. “On the origin of revolution” ASFA 3: Aquatic Pollution and Environmental Quality. New Scientist [NEW SCI.], vol. 147, no. 1997, pp. 28-29, 1995

C7) Glynn, PW. “State of coral reefs in the Galapagos Islands: Natural vs anthropogenic impacts” ASFA 3: Aquatic Pollution and Environmental Quality. Marine Pollution Bulletin [MAR. POLLUT. BULL.], vol. 29, no. 1-3, pp. 131-140, 1994

D1) Hile, Jennifer. “Illegal Fishing Threatens Galápagos Islands Waters” March 12, 2004. National Geographic on Assignment http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/03/0312_040312_TVgalapagos.html

D6) Oviedo, Paola. Conflict and collaboration in natural resource management Part 2: Coastal Areas Chapter 8: The Galapagos Islands: Conflict management in conservation and sustainable resource management http://web.idrc.ca/en/ev-27980-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html

E1) Alcantara, Nelson. “Research group urging boycott of the Galapagos Islands”. ETurbo News. Sep 24, 04 | 10:41 am

F1) Galápagos. Oxford [Oxfordshire]; New York: Published in collaboration with the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources by Pergamon Press, c1984.

F2) Jackson, Michael H. (Michael Hume). Galapagos, a natural history. Calgary: University of Calgary Press, c1993.

F4) Kricher, John C. Galapagos. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, c2002.

F6) Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. Vol. 61

a) Grant, Gerold C. et al. “Using underwater video to directly estimate gear selectivity: the retention probability for walleye (Sander vitreus) in gill nets”. No. 2, February 2004. pgs. 168-174

b) Dowling, Natalie A. et al. “Assessing population sustainability and response to fishing in terms of aggregation structure for greenlip abalone (Haliotis laevigata) fishery management”. No. 2, February 2004. pgs. 247-254

c) Johansen, Seir Odd et al. “Consumption of juvenile herring (Clupea harengus) by cod (Gadus morhua) in the Barents Sea: a new approach to estimating consumption in piscivorous fish”. No. 3, March 2004. pgs. 343-359

d) Salas, Silvia et al. “Short term decision of small-scale fishers selecting alternative target species: a choice model”. No. 3, March 2004. pgs. 374-383

Z1) Podesta, Guillermo and Glynn, Peter W. “Sea Surface Temperature variability in Panama and Galapagos: Extreme Temperatures cause coral bleaching”. Journal of Geophysical Research. Vol. 102, No C7, pgs. 15,749 – 15,759, July 15, 1997.