6.031 — Software Construction
Fall 2017

Reading 4: Code Review

You must complete the exercises in this reading by 10:00 pm the night before class.

Java Tutor exercises

Keep making progress on Java by completing the next three categories in the Java Tutor:

Software in 6.031

Safe from bugsEasy to understandReady for change
Correct today and correct in the unknown future. Communicating clearly with future programmers, including future you. Designed to accommodate change without rewriting.

Objectives for Today’s Class

In today’s class, we will practice:

  • code review: reading and discussing code written by somebody else
  • general principles of good coding: things you can look for in every code review, regardless of programming language or program purpose

Code Review

Code review is careful, systematic study of source code by people who are not the original author of the code. It’s analogous to proofreading a term paper.

Code review really has two purposes:

  • Improving the code. Finding bugs, anticipating possible bugs, checking the clarity of the code, and checking for consistency with the project’s style standards.
  • Improving the programmer. Code review is an important way that programmers learn and teach each other, about new language features, changes in the design of the project or its coding standards, and new techniques. In open source projects, particularly, much conversation happens in the context of code reviews.

Code review is widely practiced in open source projects like Apache and Mozilla. Code review is also widely practiced in industry. At Google, you can’t push any code into the main repository until another engineer has signed off on it in a code review.

In 6.031, we’ll do code review on problem sets, as described in the Code Reviewing document on the course website.

Style Standards

Most companies and large projects have coding style standards. These can get pretty detailed, even to the point of specifying whitespace (how deep to indent) and where curly braces and parentheses should go. These kinds of questions often lead to holy wars since they end up being a matter of taste and style.

In 6.031, we have no official style guide. If you are new to Java and want a recommendation, Google Java Style is widely used and appealing for its readability, particularly rules like these:

if (isOdd(n)) {    
    n = 3*n + 1;
}
  • space after keyword (if), but not after function name (isOdd)
  • { at the end of a line, } on a line by itself
  • {} around all blocks, even empty or one-statement blocks

But we won’t dictate where to put your curly braces in this class. That’s a personal decision that each programmer should make. It’s important to be self-consistent, however, and it’s very important to follow the conventions of the project you’re working on. If you’re the programmer who reformats every module you touch to match your personal style, your teammates will hate you, and rightly so. Be a team player.

But there are some rules that are quite sensible and target our big three properties, in a stronger way than placing curly braces. The rest of this reading talks about some of these rules, at least the ones that are relevant at this point in the course, where we’re mostly talking about writing basic Java. These are some things you should start to look for when you’re code reviewing other students, and when you’re looking at your own code for improvement. Don’t consider it an exhaustive list of code style guidelines, however. Over the course of the semester, we’ll talk about a lot more things — specifications, abstract data types with representation invariants, concurrency and thread safety — which will then become fodder for code review.

Smelly Example #1

Programmers often describe bad code as having a “bad smell” that needs to be removed. “Code hygiene” is another word for this. Let’s start with some smelly code.

public static int dayOfYear(int month, int dayOfMonth, int year) {
    if (month == 2) {
        dayOfMonth += 31;
    } else if (month == 3) {
        dayOfMonth += 59;
    } else if (month == 4) {
        dayOfMonth += 90;
    } else if (month == 5) {
        dayOfMonth += 31 + 28 + 31 + 30;
    } else if (month == 6) {
        dayOfMonth += 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31;
    } else if (month == 7) {
        dayOfMonth += 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30;
    } else if (month == 8) {
        dayOfMonth += 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31;
    } else if (month == 9) {
        dayOfMonth += 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 31;
    } else if (month == 10) {
        dayOfMonth += 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 31 + 30;
    } else if (month == 11) {
        dayOfMonth += 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 31 + 30 + 31;
    } else if (month == 12) {
        dayOfMonth += 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 31;
    }
    return dayOfMonth;
}

The next few sections and exercises will pick out the particular smells in this code example.

Don’t Repeat Yourself

Duplicated code is a risk to safety. If you have identical or very similar code in two places, then the fundamental risk is that there’s a bug in both copies, and some maintainer fixes the bug in one place but not the other.

Avoid duplication like you’d avoid crossing the street without looking. Copy-and-paste is an enormously tempting programming tool, and you should feel a frisson of danger run down your spine every time you use it. The longer the block you’re copying, the riskier it is.

Don’t Repeat Yourself, or DRY for short, has become a programmer’s mantra.

The dayOfYear example is full of identical code. How would you DRY it out?

reading exercises

Don’t repeat yourself

Some of the repetition in dayOfYear() is repeated values. How many times is the number of days in April written in dayOfYear()?

(missing explanation)

Don’t repeat yourself

One reason why repeated code is bad is because a problem in the repeated code has to be fixed in many places, not just one. Suppose our calendar changed so that February really has 30 days instead of 28. How many numbers in this code have to be changed?

(missing explanation)

Don’t repeat yourself

Another kind of repetition in the code is dayOfMonth+=. Assume you have an array:
int[] monthLengths = new int[] { 31, 28, 31, 30, ..., 31}
Which of the following code skeletons could be used to DRY the code out enough so that dayOfMonth+= appears only once?

(missing explanation)

Comments Where Needed

A quick general word about commenting. Good software developers write comments in their code, and do it judiciously. Good comments should make the code easier to understand, safer from bugs (because important assumptions have been documented), and ready for change.

One kind of crucial comment is a specification, which appears above a method or above a class and documents the behavior of the method or class. In Java, this is conventionally written as a Javadoc comment, meaning that it starts with /** and includes @-syntax, like @param and @return for methods. Here’s an example of a spec:

/**
 * Compute the hailstone sequence.
 * See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collatz_conjecture#Statement_of_the_problem
 * @param n starting number of sequence; requires n > 0.
 * @return the hailstone sequence starting at n and ending with 1.
 *         For example, hailstone(3)=[3,10,5,16,8,4,2,1].
 */
public static List<Integer> hailstoneSequence(int n) {
    ...
}

Specifications document assumptions. We’ve already mentioned specs a few times, and there will be much more to say about them in a future reading.

Another crucial comment is one that specifies the provenance or source of a piece of code that was copied or adapted from elsewhere. This is vitally important for practicing software developers, and is required by the 6.031 collaboration policy when you adapt code you found on the web. Here is an example:

// read a web page into a string
// see http://stackoverflow.com/questions/4328711/read-url-to-string-in-few-lines-of-java-code
String mitHomepage = new Scanner(new URL("http://www.mit.edu").openStream(), "UTF-8").useDelimiter("\\A").next();

One reason for documenting sources is to avoid violations of copyright. Small snippets of code on Stack Overflow are typically in the public domain, but code copied from other sources may be proprietary or covered by other kinds of open source licenses, which are more restrictive. Another reason for documenting sources is that the code can fall out of date; the Stack Overflow answer from which this code came has evolved significantly in the years since it was first answered.

Some comments are bad and unnecessary. Direct transliterations of code into English, for example, do nothing to improve understanding, because you should assume that your reader at least knows Java:

while (n != 1) { // test whether n is 1   (don't write comments like this!)
   ++i; // increment i
   l.add(n); // add n to l
}

But obscure code should get a comment:

sendMessage("as you wish"); // this basically says "I love you"

The dayOfYear code needs some comments — where would you put them? For example, where would you document whether month runs from 0 to 11 or from 1 to 12?

reading exercises

Comments where needed

Which comments are useful additions to the code? Consider each comment independently, as if the other comments weren’t there.

/** @param month month of the year, where January=1 and December=12  [C1] */
public static int dayOfYear(int month, int dayOfMonth, int year) {
    if (month == 2) {      // we're in February  [C2]
        dayOfMonth += 31;  // add in the days of January that already passed  [C3]
    } else if (month == 3) {
        dayOfMonth += 59;  // month is 3 here  [C4]
    } else if (month == 4) {
        dayOfMonth += 90;
    }
    ...
    } else if (month == 12) {
        dayOfMonth += 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 31;
    }
    return dayOfMonth; // the answer  [C5]
}

(missing explanation)

Fail Fast

Failing fast means that code should reveal its bugs as early as possible. The earlier a problem is observed (the closer to its cause), the easier it is to find and fix. As we saw in the first reading, static checking fails faster than dynamic checking, and dynamic checking fails faster than producing a wrong answer that may corrupt subsequent computation.

The dayOfYear function doesn’t fail fast — if you pass it the arguments in the wrong order, it will quietly return the wrong answer. In fact, the way dayOfYear is designed, it’s highly likely that a non-American will pass the arguments in the wrong order! It needs more checking — either static checking or dynamic checking.

reading exercises

Fail fast
public static int dayOfYear(int month, int dayOfMonth, int year) {
    if (month == 2) {
        dayOfMonth += 31;
    } else if (month == 3) {
        dayOfMonth += 59;
    } else if (month == 4) {
        dayOfMonth += 90;
    } else if (month == 5) {
        dayOfMonth += 31 + 28 + 31 + 30;
    } else if (month == 6) {
        dayOfMonth += 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31;
    } else if (month == 7) {
        dayOfMonth += 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30;
    } else if (month == 8) {
        dayOfMonth += 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31;
    } else if (month == 9) {
        dayOfMonth += 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 31;
    } else if (month == 10) {
        dayOfMonth += 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 31 + 30;
    } else if (month == 11) {
        dayOfMonth += 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 31 + 30 + 31;
    } else if (month == 12) {
        dayOfMonth += 31 + 28 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 31;
    }
    return dayOfMonth;
}

Suppose the date is February 9, 2019. The correct dayOfYear() result for this date is 40, since it’s the fortieth day of the year.

Which of the following are plausible ways that a programmer might (mistakenly) call dayOfYear() for February 9, 2019? And for each one, does it lead to a static error, dynamic error, or wrong answer?

dayOfYear(2, 9, 2019)

(missing explanation)

dayOfYear(1, 9, 2019)

(missing explanation)

dayOfYear(9, 2, 2019)

(missing explanation)

dayOfYear("February", 9, 2019)

(missing explanation)

dayOfYear(2019, 2, 9)

(missing explanation)

dayOfYear(2, 2019, 9)

(missing explanation)

Fail faster

Which of the following changes (considered separately) would make the code fail faster if it were called with arguments in the wrong order?

public static int dayOfYear(String month, int dayOfMonth, int year) { 
    ... 
}

(missing explanation)

public static int dayOfYear(int month, int dayOfMonth, int year) {
    if (month < 1 || month > 12) {
        return -1;
    }
    ...
}

(missing explanation)

public static int dayOfYear(int month, int dayOfMonth, int year) {
    if (month < 1 || month > 12) {
        throw new IllegalArgumentException();
    }
    ...
}

(missing explanation)

public enum Month { JANUARY, FEBRUARY, MARCH, ..., DECEMBER };
public static int dayOfYear(Month month, int dayOfMonth, int year) {
    ...
}

(missing explanation)

public static int dayOfYear(int month, int dayOfMonth, int year) {
    if (month == 1) {
        ...
    } else if (month == 2) {
        ...
    }
    ...
    } else if (month == 12) {
        ...
    } else {
        throw new IllegalArgumentException("month out of range");
    }
}

(missing explanation)

Avoid Magic Numbers

There are really only two constants that computer scientists recognize as valid in and of themselves: 0, 1, and maybe 2. (Okay, three constants.)

All other constants are called magic because they appear as if out of thin air with no explanation.

One way to explain a number is with a comment, but a far better way is to declare the number as a named constant with a good, clear name.

dayOfYear is full of magic numbers:

  • The months 2, …, 12 would be far more readable as FEBRUARY, …, DECEMBER.
  • The days-of-months 30, 31, 28 would be more readable (and eliminate duplicate code) if they were in a data structure like an array, list, or map, e.g. MONTH_LENGTH[month].
  • The mysterious numbers 59 and 90 are particularly pernicious examples of magic numbers. Not only are they uncommented and undocumented, they are actually the result of a computation done by hand by the programmer. Don’t hardcode constants that you’ve computed by hand. Java is better at arithmetic than you are. Explicit computations like 31 + 28 make the provenance of these mysterious numbers much clearer. MONTH_LENGTH[JANUARY] + MONTH_LENGTH[FEBRUARY] would be clearer still.

reading exercises

Avoid magic numbers

In the code:

if (month == 2) { ... }

what might a reasonable programmer plausibly assume about the meaning of the magic number 2?

(missing explanation)

What happens when you assume

Suppose you’re reading some code that uses a turtle graphics library that you don’t know well, and you see the code:

turtle.rotate(3);

Which of the following are likely assumptions you might make about the meaning of the number 3?

(missing explanation)

Names instead of numbers

Consider this code:

for (int i = 0; i < 5; ++i) {
    turtle.forward(36);
    turtle.turn(72);
}

The magic numbers in this code cause it to fail all three of our measures of code quality: it’s not safe from bugs (SFB), not easy to understand (ETU) and not ready for change (RFC).

For each of the following rewrites, judge whether it improves SFB, ETU, and/or RFC, or none of the above.

final int five = 5;
final int thirtySix = 36;
final int seventyTwo = 72;
for (int i = 0; i < five; ++i) {
    turtle.forward(thirtySix);
    turtle.turn(seventyTwo);
}

(missing explanation)

int[] numbers = new int[] { 5, 36, 72 }; 
for (int i = 0; i < numbers[0]; ++i) {
    turtle.forward(numbers[1]);
    turtle.turn(numbers[2]);
}

(missing explanation)

int x = 5;
for (int i = 0; i < x; ++i) {
    turtle.forward(36);
    turtle.turn(360.0 / x);
}

(missing explanation)

final double fullCircleDegrees = 360.0;
final int numSides = 5;
final int sideLength = 36;
for (int i = 0; i < numSides; ++i) {
    turtle.forward(sideLength);
    turtle.turn(fullCircleDegrees / numSides);
}

(missing explanation)

One Purpose For Each Variable

In the dayOfYear example, the parameter dayOfMonth is reused to compute a very different value — the return value of the function, which is not the day of the month.

Don’t reuse parameters, and don’t reuse variables. Variables are not a scarce resource in programming. Introduce them freely, give them good names, and just stop using them when you stop needing them. You will confuse your reader if a variable that used to mean one thing suddenly starts meaning something different a few lines down.

Not only is this an ease-of-understanding question, but it’s also a safety-from-bugs and ready-for-change question.

Method parameters, in particular, should generally be left unmodified. (This is important for being ready-for-change — in the future, some other part of the method may want to know what the original parameters of the method were, so you shouldn’t blow them away while you’re computing.) It’s a good idea to use final for method parameters, and as many other variables as you can. The final keyword says that the variable should never be reassigned, and the Java compiler will check it statically. For example:

public static int dayOfYear(final int month, final int dayOfMonth, final int year) {
    ...
}

Smelly Example #2

There was a latent bug in dayOfYear. It didn’t handle leap years at all. As part of fixing that, suppose we write a leap-year method.

public static boolean leap(int y) {
    String tmp = String.valueOf(y);
    if (tmp.charAt(2) == '1' || tmp.charAt(2) == '3' || tmp.charAt(2) == 5 || tmp.charAt(2) == '7' || tmp.charAt(2) == '9') {
        if (tmp.charAt(3)=='2'||tmp.charAt(3)=='6') return true; /*R1*/
        else
            return false; /*R2*/
    }else{
        if (tmp.charAt(2) == '0' && tmp.charAt(3) == '0') {
            return false; /*R3*/
        }
        if (tmp.charAt(3)=='0'||tmp.charAt(3)=='4'||tmp.charAt(3)=='8')return true; /*R4*/
    }
    return false; /*R5*/
}

What are the bugs hidden in this code? And what style problems that we’ve already talked about?

reading exercises

Mental execution 2016

What happens when you call:

leap(2016)

(missing explanation)

Mental execution 2017

What happens when you call:

leap(2017)
Mental execution 2050

What happens when you call:

leap(2050)

(missing explanation)

Mental execution 10016

What happens when you call:

leap(10016)

(missing explanation)

Mental execution 916

What happens when you call:

leap(916)

(missing explanation)

Magic numbers

How many magic numbers are in this code? Count every occurrence if some appear more than once.

(missing explanation)

DRYing out

Suppose you wrote the helper function:

public static boolean isDivisibleBy(int number, int factor) { return number % factor == 0; }

If leap() were rewritten to use isDivisibleBy(year, ...), and to correctly follow the leap year algorithm, how many magic numbers would be in the code?

(missing explanation)

Use Good Names

Good method and variable names are long and self-descriptive. Comments can often be avoided entirely by making the code itself more readable, with better names that describe the methods and variables.

For example, you can rewrite

int tmp = 86400;  // tmp is the number of seconds in a day (don't do this!)

as:

int secondsPerDay = 86400;

In general, variable names like tmp, temp, and data are awful, symptoms of extreme programmer laziness. Every local variable is temporary, and every variable is data, so those names are generally meaningless. Better to use a longer, more descriptive name, so that your code reads clearly all by itself.

Follow the lexical naming conventions of the language. In Python, classes are typically Capitalized, variables are lowercase, and words_are_separated_by_underscores. In Java:

  • methodsAreNamedWithCamelCaseLikeThis
  • variablesAreAlsoCamelCase
  • CONSTANTS_ARE_IN_ALL_CAPS_WITH_UNDERSCORES
  • ClassesAreCapitalized
  • packages.are.lowercase.and.separated.by.dots

ALL_CAPS_WITH_UNDERSCORES is used for static final constants. All variables declared inside a method, including final ones, use camelCaseNames.

Method names are usually verb phrases, like getDate or isUpperCase, while variable and class names are usually noun phrases. Choose short words, and be concise, but avoid abbreviations. For example, message is clearer than msg, and word is so much better than wd. Keep in mind that many of your teammates in class and in the real world will not be native English speakers, and abbreviations can be even harder for non-native speakers.

Avoid single-character variable names entirely except where they are easily understood by convention. For example, x and y make sense for Cartesian coordinates, and i and j as integer variables in for loops. But if your code is full of variables like e, f, g, and h, because you’re just picking them from the alphabet, then it will be incredibly hard to read.

The leap method has bad names: the method name itself, and the local variable name. What would you call them instead?

reading exercises

Better method names
public static boolean leap(int y) {
    String tmp = String.valueOf(y);
    if (tmp.charAt(2) == '1' || tmp.charAt(2) == '3' || tmp.charAt(2) == 5 || tmp.charAt(2) == '7' || tmp.charAt(2) == '9') {
        if (tmp.charAt(3)=='2'||tmp.charAt(3)=='6') return true;
        else
            return false;
    }else{
        if (tmp.charAt(2) == '0' && tmp.charAt(3) == '0') {
            return false;
        }
        if (tmp.charAt(3)=='0'||tmp.charAt(3)=='4'||tmp.charAt(3)=='8')return true;
    }
    return false;
}

Which of the following are good names for the leap() method?

(missing explanation)

Better variable names

Which of the following are good names for the tmp variable inside leap()?

(missing explanation)

Use Whitespace to Help the Reader

Use consistent indentation. The leap example is bad at this. The dayOfYear example is much better. In fact, dayOfYear nicely lines up all the numbers into columns, making them easy for a human reader to compare and check. That’s a great use of whitespace.

Put spaces within code lines to make them easy to read. The leap example has some lines that are packed together — put in some spaces.

Never use tab characters for indentation, only space characters. Note that we say characters, not keys. We’re not saying you should never press the Tab key, only that your editor should never put a tab character into your source file in response to your pressing the Tab key. The reason for this rule is that different tools treat tab characters differently — sometimes expanding them to 4 spaces, sometimes to 2 spaces, sometimes to 8. If you run “git diff” on the command line, or if you view your source code in a different editor, then the indentation may be completely screwed up. Just use spaces. Always set your programming editor to insert space characters when you press the Tab key.

Smelly Example #3

Here’s a third example of smelly code that will illustrate the remaining points of this reading.

public static int LONG_WORD_LENGTH = 5;
public static String longestWord;

public static void countLongWords(List<String> words) {
   int n = 0;
   longestWord = "";
   for (String word: words) {
       if (word.length() > LONG_WORD_LENGTH) ++n;
       if (word.length() > longestWord.length()) longestWord = word;
   }
   System.out.println(n);
}

Don’t Use Global Variables

Avoid global variables. Let’s break down what we mean by global variable. A global variable is:

  • a variable, a name whose meaning can be changed
  • that is global, accessible and changeable from anywhere in the program.

Why Global Variables Are Bad (cached version) has a good list of the dangers of global variables.

In Java, a global variable is declared public static. The public modifier makes it accessible anywhere, and static means there is a single instance of the variable.

However, with one additional modifier, public static final, the name becomes a global constant, which can be read anywhere in the program but never reassigned, so the risks go away. Global constants are common and useful.

In general, convert global variables into parameters and return values, or put them inside objects that you’re calling methods on. We’ll see many techniques for doing that in future readings.

Kinds of variables in snapshot diagrams

When we’re drawing snapshot diagrams, it’s important to distinguish between different kinds of variables:

  • local variables inside a method
  • instance variables inside an instance of an object
  • static variables associated with a class

Local variables come into existence when a method is called, and then disappear when the method returns. If multiple calls to the same method are in progress (for example because of recursion), then each call will have its own independent local variables.

Instance variables come into existence when an object is created with new, and then disappear when the object is no longer accessible and becomes garbage-collected. Each object instance has its own instance variables.

A static variable comes into existence when the program starts (or more precisely when the class containing the variable is first loaded, since that might be delayed), and exist for the rest of the life of the program.

Here is a simple piece of code that uses all three kinds of variables:

class Payment {
    public double value;
    public static double taxRate = 0.05;
    public static void main(String[] args) {
        Payment p = new Payment();
        p.value = 100;
        taxRate = 0.05;
        System.out.println(p.value * (1 + taxRate));
    }
}

A snapshot diagram shows each variable differently (see the diagram on the right).

snapshot diagram showing local variables p and args, instance variable value, and static variables taxRate and out

The local variables p and args are shown in a stack frame representing a call to the main method. Stack frames are rectangular and pile on top of each other. For example, when main calls println, then a stack frame for println appears on top of the main frame, containing the local variables for println. The frame disappears when println returns.

The instance variable value appears inside every Payment object.

The static variable taxRate appears outside any Payment object, because it belongs to the class. Any number of Payment objects can be created and destroyed, and their value variables along with them, but there is one and only one Payment class in the whole program, so there is likewise exactly one Payment.taxRate variable. System.out is another static variable used in the code, so the snapshot diagram shows it as well.

reading exercises

Identifying global variables

In Smelly Example #3 above, which of these are global variables?

(missing explanation)

Effect of final

Making a variable into a constant by adding the final keyword can eliminate the risk of global variables. What happens to each of these when the final keyword is added? Look carefully at how the variable is used in Smelly Example #3.

n

(missing explanation)

LONG_WORD_LENGTH

(missing explanation)

longestWord

(missing explanation)

word

(missing explanation)

words

(missing explanation)

Methods Should Return Results, not Print Them

countLongWords isn’t ready for change. It sends some of its result to the console, System.out. That means that if you want to use it in another context — where the number is needed for some other purpose, like computation rather than human eyes — it would have to be rewritten.

In general, only the highest-level parts of a program should interact with the human user or the console. Lower-level parts should take their input as parameters and return their output as results. The sole exception here is debugging output, which can of course be printed to the console. But that kind of output shouldn’t be a part of your design, only a part of how you debug your design.

Summary

Code review is a widely-used technique for improving software quality by human inspection. Code review can detect many kinds of problems in code, but as a starter, this reading talked about these general principles of good code:

  • Don’t Repeat Yourself (DRY)
  • Comments where needed
  • Fail fast
  • Avoid magic numbers
  • One purpose for each variable
  • Use good names
  • No global variables
  • Return results, don’t print them
  • Use whitespace for readability

The topics of today’s reading connect to our three key properties of good software as follows:

  • Safe from bugs. In general, code review uses human reviewers to find bugs. DRY code lets you fix a bug in only one place, without fear that it has propagated elsewhere. Commenting your assumptions clearly makes it less likely that another programmer will introduce a bug. The Fail Fast principle detects bugs as early as possible. Avoiding global variables makes it easier to localize bugs related to variable values, since non-global variables can be changed in only limited places in the code.

  • Easy to understand. Code review is really the only way to find obscure or confusing code, because other people are reading it and trying to understand it. Using judicious comments, avoiding magic numbers, keeping one purpose for each variable, using good names, and using whitespace well can all improve the understandability of code.

  • Ready for change. Code review helps here when it’s done by experienced software developers who can anticipate what might change and suggest ways to guard against it. DRY code is more ready for change, because a change only needs to be made in one place. Returning results instead of printing them makes it easier to adapt the code to a new purpose.


Remember the exercises

At this point you should have completed all the reading exercises above.

Completing the reading exercises prepares you for the nanoquiz at the beginning of each class meeting, and submitting the exercises is required by 10pm the evening before class.

At this point you should have also completed these levels of the Java Tutor: