The Net Advance of Physics: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES, No. 1

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Exobiological Aspects of Comets and Meteorites: Annotated Alphabetical Bibliography

NOTE: Please send us any references we may have missed. This project is being updated often. redingtn@mit.edu

Annotated Bibliography: Meteorites and Life

M. Ageno, 1972 Journal of Theoretical Biology 37:187.
An article on biological asymmetry. Remarks in passing that the racemic nature of meteorite amino acids shows them to be non-biological.

M.F. A'Hearn, 1979 Astronomical Journal 84:570.
Reports data on dust from comets Encke, Chernykh, Grigg-Skjellerup, and d'Arrest. Estimates carbon-radical production rates. Notes that Comet Chernykh, which is exceptionally dusty, appears to have grey, rather than blue, grains.

M.F. A'Hearn, 1980 in C. Ponnaperuma, ed., 1980 Comets and the Origin of Life (Reidel, Dordrecht):53.
Argues that most comets are chemically identical, uniform with depth in nucleus, and formed in a homogeneous region of presolar nebula.

M.F. A'Hearn, 1984 Chemical and Engineering News 1984 May 28:32.
Semi-popular overview article on comet chemistry, including an interesting sidebar on the photolysis of water.

L.J. Allamandola, et al., 1985 Astrophysical Journal 290:L25.
Attribute unidentified interstellar infrared bands to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons similar to those in automobile exhaust (``auto exhaust along the Milky Way''). Study the infrared fluorescence of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon chrysene in particular detail.

L.J. Allamandola, et al., 1987 Science 237:56.
Review article on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in interplanetary dust and in meteorites; they have similar Raman spectra, isotope ratios, etc.

L.J. Allamandola, et al., 1988 Icarus 76:225.
Report that ultraviolet photolysis of methanol-rich simulated interstellar ice produces mainly a variety of simple organic compounds, but also a few more complex molecules with nitrile, isonitrile, or carbonyl groups.

L.J. Allamandola, et al., 1993 Science 260:64.
Report that infrared spectra of dense clouds show presence of tertiary aliphatic hydrocarbon, while the diffuse clouds show methyl and methylene groups. Argue that the dense clouds contain microdiamonds and the diffuse clouds contain kerogen. However, meteoritic microdiamonds do not contain the tertiary peak, and the issue is puzzling. Suggest that at any rate diamondlike material must be ubiquitous in interstellar medium.

D.A. Allen and D.T. Wickramasinghe, 1987 Nature 329:615.
Report an emission feature of Comet Wilson, the spectrum of which indicates that it is probably a release of organic grains. However, the band shape does not resemble biological materials thus far studied.

M. Allen, et al., 1987 Astronomy and Astrophysics 187:502.
Argue that Giotto mass spectra of Comet Halley indicate methane and ammonia in coma.

B. Alpern and Y. Benkheiri, 1973 Earth and Planetary Science Letters 19:422.
Using fluorescent microscopy on Orgueil carbonaceous chondrite, conclude that most organic matter is small micron-wide spheres.

E. Anders, 1962 Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 93:649.
Criticizes Nagy et al.'s comparison of mass spectra of biogenic materials (butter and recent sediments) to Orgueil, noting that the two biogenic substances look very dissimilar. Points out that Orgueil sample is likely to have absorbed fossil fuel residues in the century of its stay in New York City. Finds that resemblance between cracking pattern of Orgueil distillate and that of known biogenic hydrocarbons interesting but inconclusive. Questions Nagy's use of statistics as well.

E. Anders and F.W. Fitch, 1962 Science 138:1392
Unsuccessful attempt to confirm Nagy et al.'s finding of organized elements in the Orgueil stone. Found fewer simple-morphology particles than claimed by Nagy and no evidence of biological origin. Found no rare complex-morphology particles and suspects that those reported by Nagy et al. were contaminants or artifacts.

E. Anders et al, 1964 Science 146:1157.
Reports that a sample of the Orgueil stone in the Musée d' Histoire Naturelle, Montauban, France, contains coal fragments, reed seed-capsules, and a glue-like collagen. Concludes this sample was either deliberately or accidentally contaminated in the XIX Century. (The reed is local to the Montauban area, so is unlikely to be extraterrestrial). Perhaps other samples were contaminated as well.

E. Anders et al, 1973 Science 182:781.
Review article on organic compounds in meteorites, believed to have formed by catalytic reactions of CO, hydrogen and ammonia in the solar nebula.

E. Anders, 1989 Nature 342:255.
Because organic matter is largely destroyed by heating in a major impact, it is important to calculate how much organic material arrives in small meteorites which are gently decelerated. Figures for present and earlier epochs are deduced.

E. Anders and E. Zinner, 1993 Meteoritics 28:490.
Review article on interstellar grains (diamond, silicon carbide, graphite) in meteorites.

Anonymous, 1882 American Journal of Science 123:156.
States that Hahn's ``crinoids'' are pseudofossils similar to inorganized structure created in the laboratory by S. Meunier.

S. Aronowitz and S. Chang, 1980 Astrophysical Journal 242:149.
Try to calculate (from the Langevin equation) adsorption of various light molecules into silica grains. Conclude that abundance of interstellar grains likely to be small.

S. Arrhenius, 1907 Scientific American 96:196.
Argues for direct propagation of life between planets by microbes hurled into near-planet space by storms, then propelled by radiation pressure. (No comets or meteorites required.)

D.E. Backman and F. Paresce, 1993 in E.H. Levy and J.I. Lunine, eds., Protostars and Planets III (University of Arizona).
Report discovery of disks of grains near three main sequence stars, roughly where the ``Kuiper belt'' of comets would lie in our solar system.

J. Bada et al, 1983 Nature 301:494.
Attack Engel and Nagy, 1982, pointing out that a more likely explanation for the fact that only the protein amino acids are non-racemic is that they are terrestrial contaminants.
Engel and Nagy reply that they had made no speculations, just reported their results, and defend their analytic technique.

J. Bada et al, 1986 Origins of Life 16:185.
Suggest that alpha-amino isobutyric acid is associated with the KT boundary. If so, might earlier impacts have introduced the amino acids necessary for the appearance of life?

J.L. Bada. 1991 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B333:349.
Review article on amino acids in meteorites. Argues that the racemic nature of meteoritic acids suggest that amino acid chirality only arose after life was well-established on Earth.

B.L. Baker, 1971 Space Life Sciences 2:472.
Review of information on organic materials in the Orgueil carbonaceous chondrite.

E.L. Bandurski and B. Nagy, 1976 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 40:1397.
Report on analysis of polymer-like organic extract from Orgueil. Conclude it is a complex mixture similar, but not identical, to kerogen.

A. Bar-Nun, et al, 1981 Origins of Life 11:387.
Attack the idea of Hoyle and Wickramasinghe that life arose in comets. Most organics are sublimed or blown off at perihelion in too short a time to migrate into interior; the structure is too tenuous for a liquid core; if there were a liquid core (due to aluminium-26), it would be too radioactive for life.

A. Bar-Nun, et al, 1985 Icarus 63:317.
Laboratory study of amorphous ice shows that it releases gas in four stages: evaporation of gas frozen to ice surface; squeezing out of trapped gas during amorphous-to-cubic phase transition; simultaneous release of gas and water, perhaps by evaporation of clathrate hydrate; release of deeply buried gas in cubic-to-hexagonal transition. Not all gases exhibited all stages, and not all gases could be trapped in the ice. Three of the four stages ejected ice grains.

A. Bar-Nun, et al, 1987 Physical Review B 35:2427.
Observe in the laboratory the trapping of argon by amorphous ice. Note that gas release from some types of ice can result in propulsion of ice-grains by little gas jets.

D. R. Barber, 1963 Perspective 5:201.
As director of the Norman Lockyer Observatory in England, Barber noticed that outbreaks of unknown photo-emulsion liquefying bacteria coincided with inferior conjunctions of Venus during magnetic storms. Venus was also in inferior conjunction at the start of the 1918 influenza pandemic. Barber renewed his suggestion in a 1997 article in the Norman Lockyer Observatory News, and Robert Fritzius has a webpage devoted to the topic.

R. Baum, 1996 Chemical and Engineering News 74:6.
News story about the background of McKay's claim.

A.J. Bauman, et al, 1973 Nature 241:264.
Extract a non-graphitic carbonaceous phase from the Allende carbonaceous chondrite. It is probably not a classical polymer because it is ``intractable'' and thermally stable.

L. Becker, et al, 1994 Nature 372:507.
Report discovery of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and fullerenes in the Allende carbonaceous chondrite by time-of-flight mass spectroscopy.

Y. Benkheiri and B. Alpern, 1974 Comptes Rendus D278:3279.
Report existence of fluorescent organic microspheres indigenous to Orgueil carbonaceous chondrite.

T. Bernatowicz, et al, 1987 Nature 327:507.
Report discovery of interstellar SiC grain in the Murray carbonaceous chondrite.

M.P. Bernstein, et al., 1995 Astrophysical Journal 454:327.
Report on analysis of simulated interstellar and cometary ices using several kinds of spectroscopy. When exposed to ultraviolet and warmed to room-temperature, the ices were found to have formed HMT, polyoxymethylene, ketones, and amides, mainly with carbon from methanol in the ice. Suggest that HMT explains ``XCN'' band in protostellar object spectra and is a source of cyanide and of prebiotic substances on comets and in clouds.

M. Berthelot, 1868 Comptes Rendus 67:849.
A theoretical paper seeking to explain presence of petroleumlike hydrocarbons in meteorites in terms of a reaction between metal carbides and water.

J.J. Berzelius, 1834 Annalen der physikalisches Chemie 33:113.
Found humic acid in Alais carbonaceous chondrite; decided a biological origin unlikely.

A. Bieger, et al., 1985 Origins of Life 16:409.
Report that the dehydration of serin, a reaction similar to those causing genetic damage on exposure to vacuum, proceeds twice as quickly in vacuum as in dry air.

F. Birgham, 1881 Popular Science 20:83.
Reports alleged discovery of fossil multi-cellular invertebrates in stones of 1866 Knyahinya fall by Hahn and Weinland.

M.C. Bitz and B. Nagy, 1966 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S. 56:1383.
Attempt analysis of polymerlike materials extracted from Orgueil carbonaceous chondrite, coal, and kerogen by ozonolysis, but while there are marked similarities, the problem is complicated.

D. Blake, et al., 1991 Science 254:548.
Report that electron microscope observations of laboratory amorphous methanol-water ice suggest that clathrates form during warming.

F.L. Boschke, 1988 Chem. Labor. Betr. 39:14.
German-language discussion, according to the abstract, of possible significance of carbonaceous chondrite biomolecules to exobiology.

A. P. Boss, 1996, in R. H. Hewins, et al., eds., Chondrules and the Protoplanetary Disk (Cambridge University): 257.
Extremely well organized guide to chondrule formation theories, listing arguments for and against each model.

J.P. Bradley, et al., 1984 Science 223:56.
Report finding carbonaceous material in association with iron-nickel alloy, carbides, and oxides in interplanetary dust particles. The carbides and oxides are typical of the Fischer-Tropsch reaction.

J.P. Bradley and D.E. Brownlee, 1986 Science 231:1542.
Report discovery of a class of extremely porous micrometeorites composed of anhydrous silicates, sulfides, carbides, and glass. Suggest that these are cometary particles.

M.N. Bramlette, 1967 Science 158:673.
Comment on the existence of numerous terrestrial pseudo-microfossils which might fool biologists.

M.H. Briggs, 1961 Nature 191:1137.
Reports discovery of complex organic compounds in the Mokoia carbonaceous chondrite. Speculates they are either from decay of a dead extraterrestrial life-form or are abiotic compounds formed in the early solar system.

M.H. Briggs and G.B. Kitto, 1962 Nature 193:1126.
Find complex organized microstructures, some resembling unicellular organisms, in the Mokoia carbonaceous chondrite. Take no position on their origin.

M.H. Briggs, 1962 Observatory 82:216.
Argues that the large quantity of organic material associated with meteorites, especially with carbonaceous chondrites, is sufficient for a non-biological explanation of petroleum---also argues that some microfossils found in terrestrial sediments may be in fact ``polymeric hydrocarbons derived from meteoritic fragments,'' (i.e., that some terrestrial microfossils are really Nagy-type objects of non-biological, extraterrestrial origin).

M.H. Briggs, 1963 Nature 197:1290.
Isotopic analysis shows that organic material in various carbonaceous chondrites probably extraterrestrial, not a contaminant.

M.H. Briggs, 1963 Life Sciences 2:63.
Reports discovery of urea, acetamide, and various aromatic acids in carbonaceous chondrites.

M.H. Briggs and G. Mamkiunian, 1963 Space Science Review 1:647.
Review article about organic substances in carbonaceous chondrites; agnostic about ``organized structures.''

T.Y. Brooke, et al., 1996 Nature 383:606.
Report detection of acetylene in infrared spectrum of Comet Hyakutake. The abundance relative to water suggests it originated in interstellar ice grains, not in the solar nebula.

J. Brooks, 1981 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A303:595.
Review paper on carbonaceous chondrites and early preCambrian rocks.

T.G. Brophy, 1995 Icarus 94:250.
Suggests that the parent bodies of meteorites were not necessarily in this solar system.

H.S. Brown, 1953 A Bibliography on Meteorites (University of Chicago)
Over 8,000 references.

D.E. Brownlee, 1980 in C. Ponnaperuma, ed., 1980 Comets and the Origin of Life (Reidel, Dordrecht):63.
If black particles collected in stratosphere and on sea floor are interplanetary dust, then their composition (similar but not identical to that of carbonaceous chondrites) is probably the same as cometary grains.

P. Bruston and F. Raulin, 1995 Planetary and Space Science 43:1JJ.
Very brief review of current status of exobiology; the entire journal issue develops these themes.

J.D. Buddhue, 1942 Popular Astronomy 50:561.
Attacks Lipman's claimed discovery of organic nitrogen compounds.

T.E. Bunch and S. Chang, 1980 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 44:1543.
On the basis of petrographic observations of various carbonaceous chondrites, argue that they contain numerous low-temperature aqueous alteration products in a regolith matrix. The Nagoya carbonaceous chondrite is particularly extensively altered.

John G. Burke, 1986 Cosmic Debris: Meteorites in History (University of California)
An outstanding history of the study of meteorites (and of the role of meteorites in prescientific culture), including the debate over their exobiological significance.

A.L. Burlingame and H.K. Schnoes, 1966 Science 152:104.
Attack Studier et al.'s 1965 work with carbonaceous chondrites on various grounds as inadequate to serve as basis for any theory of carbonaceous chondrite origins.

A.G.W. Cameron, 1962 Icarus 1:13.
Develops model of solar nebula from metallurgical and isotopic properties of meteorites--a benchmark paper in early solar-system research.

P. Cassen, 1996, in R. H. Hewins, et al., eds., Chondrules and the Protoplanetary Disk (Cambridge University): 21.
Review article on models of disks around T Tauri stars.

C. Chyba and C. Sagan, 1987 Nature 329:208.
Argue that numerous other more ``plausable'' models explain the Comet Halley dust spectrum as well as does the theory of Hoyle and Wickramasinghe. Also criticize this theory's choice of a temperature.

C. Chyba and C. Sagan, 1987 Nature 330:350.
Describe laboratory spectra of simulated comet ice containing irradiated organic residues and producing a spectrum similar to that of Halley's comet.

C.F. Chyba and C. Sagan, 1988 Nature 332:592.
Argue against Hoyle and Wickramasinghe that if freeze-dried bacteria fit spectrum of Comet Halley, it is because of the presence of common organic functional groups found in bacteria and in non-living systems. Concede, however, that they had overstated their case. Also defend themselves against criticism by Greenberg and Zhao.

C.F. Chyba, 1990 Nature 348:113.
News article about discovery of asymmetry in extraterrestrial amino acids, and Zahnle-Grinspoon proposal for method by which amino acids were transfered to earth by evaporating comet.

Benton C. Clark, 1985 Origins of Life 16:410.
Brief survey of the difficulties encountered by spores migrating between Earth and Mars.

B.C. Clark, 1989 Origins of Life 18:209.
Suggests a ``soft landing'' mechanism by which comet could land on planet relatively intact and melt, providing a growth habitat for any life or prebiotic material. The probability of a soft landing is admitted to be low, about one per million.

G. Claus and B. Nagy, 1961 Nature 192:594.
Describes discovery of organized structures in New York and DC samples of Orgueil stone, and in the Ivuna stone, both carbonaceous chondrites, but not in ordinary stony meteorites, Holbrook and Bruderheim.

G. Claus, et al., 1963 Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 108:580.
Morphology and staining behavior of organized structures in carbonaceous chondrites suggest that they are biological. The morphological method, standard in palynology, is defended.

G. Claus and C.A. Suba-C., 1964 Nature 204:118.
Verifies the abundance of organized structures in Orgueil.

S. Clement, et al., 1993 Science 262:721.
Report identification (by microprobe mass spectroscopy) of unusual polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (different from both meteoritic and terrestrial) in dust particles of possible interplanetary origin collected in the stratosphere. Odd-mass peaks more prominent, suggesting nitrogen-containing groups attached to aromatic chromophore. (Seven of the nine particles in the sample were rejected as contaminants or of unknown origin.)

S. Cloëz, 1864 Comptes Rendus 59:37.
Examined the Orgueil carbonaceous chondrite and found material comparable to peat and lignite.

B.T. Commins and J.S. Harrington, 1966 Nature 212:273.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons reported in Cold Bokkeveld and Orgueil carbonaceous chondrites. Remarks that there are several possible origins (extraterrestrial; atmospheric pyrolysis; burning of material at impact site; contamination).

G.W. Cooper and J.R. Cronin, 1995 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 59:1003.
Describe numerous amides extracted from Murchison carbonaceous chondrite. Suggest these might serve as basis of primitive sequence coding system.

F.H.C. Crick and L.E. Orgel 1973 Icarus 19:341 Propose the idea of colonizing space by deliberately seeding space with genetic material: ``directed panspermia''.

J.R. Cronin, 1976 Origins of Life 7:337 and 341.
Reports that twice as much amino acid can be extracted from the Murchison carbonaceous chondrite by subjecting samples to acid hydrolysis. This could mean either that more amino acids exist in rock than previously thought or that precursors exist which form amino acids in extraction process.

J.R. Cronin and C.B. Moore, 1976 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 40:853.
Amino acids reported in extracts from Nogoya and Mokoia carbonaceous chondrites. The Nogoya extract differs from previously studied samples.

J.R. Cronin, et al., 1981 Journal of Molecular Evolution 17:265.
Report on amino acids extracted from Murchison carbonaceous chondrite. Their properties are found to differ from those of acids created in electric disharge and Fischer-Tropsch experiments.

J.R. Cronin and S. Pizzarello, 1986 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 50:2419.
55 amino acids have been found in Murchison carbonaceous chondrite; 36 unique to meteorites.

J.R. Cronin, et al., 1987 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 51:299.
Obtain carbon-13 NMR spectra of insoluble organic residues from Orgueil, Murchison, and Allende carbonaceous chondrites. Suggest that extensive polycylic aromatic sheets are found in all three extracts.

J.R. Cronin, et al., 1988 in J.F. Kerridge and M.S. Matthews, eds., Meteorites and the Early Solar System (University of Arizona).
Report 74 amino acids in the Murchison meteorite.

J.R. Cronin, 1989 Advances in Space Research 9:59.
Review of theories about origin of organic material in carbonaceous chondrites; favors view that organic molecules from interstellar clouds were incorporated into parent body and then subjected to aqueous processes.

J. R. Cronin, 1989 Nature 339:423 News report on Zhao and Bada's KT boundary work. Expresses surprise that amino acids could survive an impact; urges isotopic and other tests be used to verify the extraterrestrial origin of the acids.

J.R. Cronin and S. Pizzarello, 1990 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 54:2859.
Find mainly complex cycloalkanes in Murchison carbonaceous chondrite extract; not methyl or n-alkanes. This work was done with care to avoid contamination, which proved extraordinarily hard, even deep within the sample. The n-alkanes which they did find were mostly near the surface, hence probably from pollution.

J.R. Cronin and S. Chang, 1993 NATO ASI Series C 416 (Chemistry of Life's Origin):209.
Review of organic chemistry of Murchison carbonaceous chondrite.

E.T. Degens and M. Bajor, 1962 Naturwissenschaft 49:605.
Report finding amino acids and sugars in the Bruderheim and Murray stones, distributed differently from on earth. However, say that for theoretical reasons, these results should be attributed to either an abiogenic origin or to contamination.

E.T. Degens, 1964 Nature 202:1092.
Compares terrestrial and extraterrestrial organic material spectra. Skeptical of biogenic theories of origin.

A.H. Delsemme, 1980 in C. Ponnaperuma, ed., 1980 Comets and the Origin of Life (Reidel, Dordrecht):141.
Review article on all proposed connections between comets and the origin of life, emphasizing the lack of data, but sympathetic to Oró's ideas and not willing entirely to reject Wickramasinghe's.

A.H. Delsemme, 1984 Origins of Life 14:51.
A review of organic and prebiotic substances in comets.

A.H. Delsemme, 1989 in R.L. Newborn, et al., eds., Comets in the Post-Halley Era (Kluwer Ac., Dordrecht) Vol. I:377.
Uses the similarity of organic chemicals from comets, carbonaceous chondrites, and interstellar space as evidence of a solar system model which predicts the existence of Oort vs. Kuiper comets and an exogenous origin for all terrestrial carbon and water.

J. Depireux, et al., 1964 Comptes Rendus 259:1891 and 4776.
Paramagnetic resonance study of Cold Bokkeveld, Mighei, and Nogoya carbonaceous chondrite free radicals, which are called partly attributable to a biogenic origin.

S. Dick, 1996 The Biological Universe: The Twentieth Century Extraterrestrial Life Debate and the Limits of Science (Cambridge University Press)
We haven't seen this book yet, but it's evidently a history of exobiology which includes a discussion of the "organized structures" controversy. The author's previous works have been extremely scholarly and informative.

B. Donn, 1982 Journal of Molecular Evolution 18:157.
Argues against the probability of life arising on comets, or likelihood of liquid water having existed on them.

B. Donn, 1989 in R.L. Newborn, et al., eds., Comets in the Post-Halley Era (Kluwer Ac., Dordrecht) Vol. I:335.
Review article about models of comet formation from inorganic grains.

B.T. Draine, 1985 in D.C. Black and M.S. Matthews, eds., Portostars and Planets II (University of Arizona):621.
Review article on grain evolution in dense clouds.

E.R. DuFresne and E. Anders, 1962 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 26:1085.
On the basis of x-ray diffraction data about nine carbonaceous chondrites, suggest a mineralogical hypothesis that there was a period of pre-terrestrial aqueous alteration of at least 1,000 years, possibly sealed in ice on a small fragment rather than on a parent body, however.

W.W. Duley and D.A. Williams, 1979 Nature 277:40.
Argue that spectroscopic data provide no evidence for the existence of grains in interstellar space, and an absorption band they would produce is not seen.

P. Ehrenfreund, et al., 1991 Astronomy and Astrophysics 252:712.
Report that three micron spectrum of deuterium-rich ``polymer'' extracted from Orgueil matches the galactic center infrared source IRS7 better than it does terrestrial kerogen. Argue that about half the carbon in the Orgueil stone therefore must come from interstellar organic grains.

P. Ehrenfreund, et al., 1992 International Astronomical Union Symposium 150 (Astrochemistry of Cosmic Phenomena):423.
Report that the three-micron spectrum of Orgueil is almost identical to that of the infrared source IRS7 near the galactic center, suggesting that organic macromolecules in meteorites are the same as in interstellar space.

A. El Gorsey and G. Donnay, 1968 Science 161:363.
Report existence of carbynes in Ries Basin impact feature, Bavaria.

M. Endress, et al., 1996 Nature 379:701.
Isotopic measurements suggest that parent body of Orgueil and Ivuna carbonaceous chondrites was undergoing aqueous activity from very early in the history of the solar system.

M.H. Engel and B. Nagy, 1982 Nature 296:837.
Reports finding apparently indigenous amino acids in Murchison carbonaceous chondrite which, however, are non-racemic.

M.H. Engel, et al., 1990 Nature 348:47.
Isotopic analysis establishes extraterrestrial origin of amino acids on Murchison carbonaceous chondrite. The fact that there is an asymmetry between optical isomers suggests optically active materials predate existence of life.

S. Epstein, et al., 1987 Nature 326:477.
Reports finding unusual ratio of isotopes in amino and carboxylic acids from the Murchison carbonaceous chondrite, confirming their extraterrestrial origin and suggesting they formed in interstellar clouds.

M.A. Farrell, 1933 American Museum Novitates 645:1.
Attacks works of Lipman, attributing bacteria to terrestrial contamination.

A. Fahey, et al., 1984 Bulletin of American Astronomical Society 16:704.
Report recovering particles of chondritic material---interplanetary dust particles---from the stratosphere.

P.D. Feldman, et al., 1986 Nature 324:433.
Suggest that carbon dioxide plays an important role in outbursts from comets, as carbon dioxide ions appeared in Comet Halley's tail around the time of an outburst.

P.D. Feldman, et al., 1993 Astrophysics Journal 404:348.
Use data from ASTRON satellite and IUE data base to calculate the ratio of ammonia-to-water production rate in Comet Halley; the ratio is between 0.44 and 0.94%.

F.W. Fitch, et al., 1962 Nature 193:1123.
Observed the same structures as Nagy et al, but believe them to be the same as certain known particles made of inorganic materials. Since fossils made of these particular materials would be ``unprecedented,'' they reject biological theory.

F.W. Fitch and E. Anders, 1963 Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 108:495.
Similar to Fitch, et al., 1962.

F.W. Fitch and E. Anders, 1963 Science 140:1097.
Argue that some of Nagy et al's organic elements are ragweed pollen particles, distorted in the staining process.

C. Flammarion, 1864 La Pluralité des Mondes Habités (Didier, Paris).
An international popular-science bestseller which made extraterrestrial life an accepted topic of conversation among educated people in the XIX Century; carbonaceous chondrites are invoked as strong circumstantial evidence for life on other planets.

W. Flight, 1877 The Eclectic 89:711.
A popular article in support of Thomson's meteorite panspermia theory.

J. Flood, 1973 Nature 246:301.
Reports monocarboxylic acids in Murray and Murchison carbonaceous chondrites. The lack of preference for an even number of carbons suggests extraterrestrial (non-biological) origin.

C.E. Folsome, et al., 1971 Nature 232:108.
Reports discovery of heterocyclic compounds indigenous to the Murchison meteorite.

C.E. Folsome, et al., 1973 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 37:455.
Report 4-hydroxypyrimidnes and other heterocyclic compounds extracted from Murray, Murchison, and Orgueil carbonaceous chondrites. No biological N-heterocyclics or triazines observed.

M.N. Fomenkova, et al., 1994 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 58:4503.
Classify the organic Comet Halley grains collected by Giotto and Vega, and compare them with with carbonaceous chondrites and with theory. Find no clear evidence of formaldehyde or cyanide polymers.

L.A. Frank and P. Huyghe, 1990 The Big Splash (Birch Lane Press, New York).
Semi-popular overview of Frank's views on comets. Argue that most of the Earth's water is of extraterrestrial origin, brought by very small, very dark comets which Frank claims to have discovered. The dark surface of these comets is supposed to be organic.

T.R. Geballe, 1987 Nature 329:583.
News story about discovery of organic materials in comets Halley and Wilson.

E. Gelpi, et al., 1970 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 34:965.
Fischer-Tropsch experiments using meteoritic and terrestrial iron as catalyst produced small amount of hydrocarbons, none isoprenoid.

E. Gelpi, et al., 1970 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 34:981.
Report finding normal and isoprenoid alkanes in extracts from six carbonaceous chondrites.

E. Gelpi, et al., 1970 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 34:995.
Find small amounts of normal and isoprenic alkanes in Canyon Diablo, Odessa, and Cosby's Creek irons. Distribution is similar to carbonaceous chondrites; doubt they are indigenous, however, because most near the surface of nodule.

E. Gelpi and J. Oró, 1970 International Journal of Mass Spectroscopy and Ion Physics 4:323.
Report mass spectroscopic analysis of isoprenoids and other isomeric alkanes from numerous meteorites, including Canyon Diablo irons, and compare with terrestrial samples. Conclude that these are probably biogenic, but are contaminants from dust, air, auto exhaust, or smoke stack plumes. Allende carbonaceous chondrite, newly fallen, shows no such activity.

K.W.R. Gilkes, et al., 1992 Meteoritics 27:224.
Report verifying existence of carbyne-like material in Murchison carbonaceous chondrite extract.

J.J. Gilvarry, 1960 Nature 188:886.
Argues that the Moon once had oceans, and that life may have evolved there; asks if rings of dark material around edge of lunar mountains are fossils left as seas dried.

B.J. Gladman and J.A. Burns, 1996 Science 274:161.
Argue from a numerical simulation that one ten-millionth of all Martian ejecta make very fast (less than one year) passages to Earth; a smaller proportion of terrestrial ejecta make rapid passages to Mars.

V.I. Goldanskii, 1977 Nature 268:612.
Proposes a mechanism--molecular tunneling in condensed formaldehyde--by which formaldehyde polymers could form in interstellar space as postulated by Wickramasinghe.

V.I. Goldanskii, 1977 Nature 269:583.
Low temperature molecular tunneling processes in formaldehyde, such as the author suggested occur in interstellar clouds, could perhaps also lead to life on cold interstellar grains.

R.M. de Graaf, et al., 1995 Nature 378:474.
Synthesize various substances including phosphonic acid, which is found in the Murchison carbonaceous chondrite, by UV irradiation of orthophosphorous acid in presence of various simple organic compounds such as formaldehyde.

M. Grady, et al., 1994 Meteoritics 29:469.
Report that carbon-13 level of carbonates in ALH84001 shows them to be indigenous and extraterrestrial. Suggest they formed in an aqueous environment.

M. Grady, et al., 1996 Nature 382:575.
Cautious discussion of McKay's work, by the authors of the first reported organic compounds on a Martian meteorite.

J.M. Greenberg, 1980 in C. Ponneperuma, ed., 1980 Comets and the Origin of Life (Reidel, Dordrecht):111.
Photoprocessing of simulated interstellar-ice-grain material, assumed also to be comet grain material, produced complex organic material, possibly including carboxlyic acids and amino acids. Suggest that such molecules were transmitted to Earth by dustgrains when Earth passed through a cloud.

J.M. Greenberg, 1982 in L.L. Wilkening, ed., 1982 Comets (University of Arizona).
Proposes model of comet as aggregate of interstellar dust, about 21% prebiotic organics and 27% water.

J.M. Greenberg and N. Zhao, 1988 Nature 331:124.
Attack both Wickramasinghe-Hoyle and Chyba-Sagan models of Comet Halley, in favor of their own theory in which organics are formed by photoprocessing of dust. State that of the two, the Chyba-Sagan model is slightly better.

J.M. Greenberg, et al., 1995 Advances in Space Research 16:9.
Argue infrared spectra of interstellar dust, laboratory organic residues, and meteorites are similar to each other and show a composition arguably like Comet Halley's.

H. Gregory, 1962 Nature 194:1065.
Attempts to identify objects seen by Nagy as pollen or plant spores.

C.W. Gübel, 1878 Sitzungberichten der math. phys. Classe, Ak. Wiss. München 101:14.
Reports an unsuccessful search for organized structures in thin sections of Kaba and Cold Bokkeveld stones.

W. Hagen, et al., 1980 Astronomy and Astrophysics 86:L3.
(Note: this article contains a printing error---the title and author on p. L3 are those of the article on p. L1 and vice versa).
Report that an ice containing water, carbon monoxide, methanol, and ammonia at 10°K has a spectrum resembling that of interstellar medium.

O. Hahn, 1879 Die Urzelle (Tübingen, Laupp'schen)
Claims to have identified algae-like plant fossils in various rocks, including the Knyahinya ordinary chondrite and the Toluca iron.

O. Hahn, 1880 Die Meteorite und ihre Organismen (Tübingen, Laupp'schen)
Examined 20 meteorites, none of which were carbonaceous chondrites. Claimed to have found fossils of sponges, corals, and crinoids, especially in the Knyahinya ordinary chondrite. Considers possibility that meteorites are of catastrophic terrestrial origin (i.e. sedimentary rocks blasted into space) but prefers the extraterrestrial theory.

I. Halliday and B.A. McIntosh, 1990 Meteoritics 25:339.
Calculate the orbit of the Murchison carbonaceous chondrite, assuming it to have been a type C asteroid.

P.B. Hamilton, 1965 Nature 205:284.
Finds that human skin is a major source of amino acid contamination of analytical samples in general.

J. Han, et al., 1969 Nature 222:364.
Find clearly biological organic material in the Pueblito de Allende carbonaceous chondrite. Attribute it to contamination and question, given rapidity of this contamination in a well-docuemented fall, all studies of meteorite organic contents.

L. Hartmann, 1996, in R. H. Hewins, et al., eds., Chondrules and the Protoplanetary Disk (Cambridge University): 13.
Review article on observations of disks around T Tauri stars.

R.P. Harvey and H.Y. McSween, 1994 Meteoritics 29:472.
Suggest, on the basis of the absence of anthophyllate and talc, that ALH84001 carbonates were formed by a hot liquid, not water, reacting with rock.

R.P. Harvey and H.Y. McSween, 1996 Nature 382:49.
Argue against Romanek, et al., on mineralogical grounds that ALH84001 carbonate globules formed at temperatures over 650°. Note absence of hydrated minerals. Suggest impact event created a hot liquid rich in carbon dioxide which reacted with local rocks.

R. Hayatsu, 1964 Science 146:1291.
Identifies purines and other organic nitrogen compounds in Orgueil sample. Large amounts of sym-triazine derivatives, of no biological significance, are noted.

R. Hayatsu, 1965 Science 149:443.
Fails to confirm Nagy's report of high optical rotation in Orgueil sample.

R. Hayatsu, 1966 Science 153:859.
Scattered light leads to spurious large optical rotations; this is probably what Nagy reported.

R. Hayatsu, et al., 1973 in E. Ingerson, ed., Proceedings of Tokyo Symposium in Hydrogeochemistry and Biogeochemistry, Vol. II (Clarke, Washington, DC).
Report use of Fischer-Tropsch type reaction to synthesize many of the compounds found in carbonaceous chondrites.

R. Hayatsu, et al., 1975 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 39:471.
Report discovery of organic nitrogen compounds in Murchison carbonaceous chondrite: purines and triazines, contrary to Folsome's results (Folsome, 1971 and 1973), but failed to detect 4-hydroxypyrimidines reported by Folsome.

R. Hayatsu, et al., 1977 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 41:1325.
Report on extensive study of insoluble extract from Murchison carbonaceous chondrite. Numerous aromatic functional groups, including 15 carboxylic acids and 11 aliphatic acids, identified. Many of the compounds seem to be indigenous rather than pyrolysis products. This is a fair, but only fair, match with Fischer-Tropsch reaction.

R. Hayatsu, et al., 1980 Science 207:1202.
Reports discovery of various phenolic acids and other organic acids in the Murchison carbonaceous chondrite.

R. Hayatsu, et al., 1980 Science 209:1515.
Report discovery of carbynes in Allende carbonaceous chondrite.

J.M. Hayes, 1967 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 31:1395.
Extremely thorough review of all organic chemical analyses of meteorites 1900-1965, excluding specifically exobiological claims.

H. von Helmholtz, 1874 Nature 11:149.
Originally published in German edition of a book by William Thomson. Defends the future Lord Kelvin's philosophy of science and his stance on various issues, ranging from Weber's electrodynamics and the particle theory of light to panspermia, against criticism of J.K.F. Zöllner. Argues that meteoritic life could survive entry into the atmosphere if it were deep enough in the stone or if it gently blew off the surface before the stone reached the denser part of the atmosphere. Remarks that he independently proposed this idea a year before Kelvin.

I.M. Henderson,et al., 1987 Nature 326:22.
Attempt to determine number of nucleotide changes in comet-borne virus evolution and expected genetic distance between strains in successive epidemics. Conclude Hoyle and Wickramasinghe model disagrees with observation.

E. Herbst, 1985 in D.C. Black and M.S. Matthews, eds., Protostars and Planets II (University of Arizona):668.
Reviews ion-molecule reactions of carbon compounds in dense molecular clouds.

R. H. Hewins, et al., eds., 1996 Chondrules and the Protoplanetary Disk (Cambridge University)
Contributors to volume discuss most aspects of chondrule formation, assumed by most to have taken place in the solar nebula.

F. von Hippel and T. van Hippel, 1996 Science 273:1639.
Letter to editor: the McKay findings, if verified, suggest life is ubiquitous either because it arises easily or because of panspermia.

R.W. Hobbs and J.M. Hollis, 1982 Origins of Life 12:125.
Propose experiments for future space missions which could resolve biological questions about comets.

G.W. Hodgson and B.L. Baker, 1964 Nature 202:125.
Report discovery in Orgueil carbonaceous chondrite of porphyrins similar to those in ancient terrestrial sediment.

G.W. Hodgson and B.L. Baker, 1969 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 33:943.
Report discovery of porphyrin pigments in Orgueil, Murray, Cold Bokkeveld, and Mokoia carbonaceous chondrites. No evidence of bacterial or other contamination found. The fluorescence spectra differ from those of terrestrial samples.

G. Holzer and J. Oró, 1979 Journal of Molecular Evolution 13:265.
Antarctic meteorite ALH77306, a carbonaceous chondrite, contains a low level of racemic amino acids. The organic content of the stone on pyrolysis resembles the Murchison carbonaceous chondrite.

R. B. Hoover, et al., 1986 Earth, Moon and Planets 35:19.
Suggest that diatoms are ideal candidates for life on comets, on Europa, and in interstellar clouds. Argue that the IR spectra of diatoms and bacteria match those of dust in the Trapezium nebula and toward the galactic center source GC-IRS7.

G. Horneck and H. Bucker, 1985 Origins of Life 16:414.
A general and philosophical paper about panspermia; very short.

G. Horneck, 1992 Nuclear Tracks and Radiation Measurement 20:185.
Review article on biological effects of cosmic rays in space, including microbe survival.

G. Horneck, 1995 Planetary and Space Science 43:189.
Review article on exobiology.

F. Hoyle and N.C. Wickramasinghe, 1976 Nature 264:45.
Show theoretically that physical conditions in prestellar molecular clouds favor formation of grains coated with complex organic materials, including amino acids; identify the grains with carbonaceous chondrite inclusions.

F. Hoyle and N.C. Wickramasinghe, 1977 Nature 266:241.
Argue that interstellar grains are found in gas clouds and in carbonaceous chondrites; that they are made of organic materials; and that life may have originated from a polymer coating such a grain.

F. Hoyle and N.C. Wickramasinghe, 1977 Nature 268:610.
Claim that spectra of gasclouds revel presence of polysaccharides.

F. Hoyle and C. Wickramasinghe, 1977 New Scientist 76:402.
Popular presentation of argument for comet-borne disease, alluding to Nagy's carbonaceous chondrite findings as evidence.

F. Hoyle, 1978 Mercury 7:2.
Popular account of his theory, emphasizing the role of interstellar clouds.

F. Hoyle and N.C Wichramasinghe, 1980 in C. Ponnaperuma, ed., 1980 Comets and the Origin of Life (Reidel, Dordrecht):227.
Concise review of argument for comet-borne panspermia, emphasizing details of bacterial dehydration and also observing that graphite in clouds would shield bacteria from interstellar ultraviolet radiation. Estimate that Earth receives 10¹⁸ cells per year from space.

F. Hoyle and N.C. Wickramasinghe, 1981 Evolution from Space (Simon and Schuster, New York) .
One of the most radical of their works, attacking most forms of biological evolution as involving unbelievably small probabilities and advocating instead directed panspermia by an ancient extraterrestrial civilization. Also suggest that insects, flowers, etc. appeared on Earth via meteorites.

F. Hoyle and N.C. Wickramasinghe, 1981 Space Travellers (University College, Cardiff) .
Present the original, more moderate form of their theory for a popular audience: comets are vectors by which microorganisms are transmitted from interstellar space to the Earth.

F. Hoyle, et al., 1986 Viruses from Space (University College, Cardiff).
Attempt to provide technical support for the epidemiological aspects of panspermia.

F. Hoyle and N.C. Wickramasinghe, 1987 Nature 327:664.
Rebuttal to Henderson, et al.,1987. Say they do not claim every influenza virus is from a different comet, or that viruses invade Earth more than once a decade. What establishment biologists call ``evolutionary changes in the virus'' they see as changes in host immune response instead.

F. Hoyle and N.C. Wickramasinghe, 1987 Nature 328:117.
Response to Kissel and Krüger, 1987. Deny that they claimed all cometary dust must be biological. Question whether Vega spacecraft observations are reliable, or might have destroyed the molecules being sought. Point out many of Kissel and Krüger's comments assume a particular model of comet structure.
Kissel and Krüger reply: Vega also didn't find the right quantities of sodium and potassium for life, or even for nucleic acids, so it doesn't matter if molecules were destroyed by impact.

F. Hoyle and N.C. Wickramasinghe, 1988 Nature 331:123.
Object to a statement by Chyba and Sagan that the agreement between bacterial model and later measurement provides ``no evidence'' that their theory is true. Say that Chyba and Sagan abiotic model is a far worse violation of the Occam's razor principle than anything of which they are guilty: life, after all, is a well-known phenomenon, but who has ever seen complex pre-biological chemistry, much less biogenesis?

F. Hoyle and N.C. Wickramasinghe, 1988 Nature 331:666.
Argue that Comet Halley's dust spectrum data agree with their bacterial model better than with the abiotic model of Chyba and Sagan, although both have difficulties at short wavelengths/low fluxes.

F. Hoyle, in F. Bertola et al., eds., New Ideas in Astronomy (Cambridge University):5
Extremely concise summary of Hoyle's exobiological views.

F. Hoyle and N.C. Wickramasinghe, 1991 Theory of Cosmic Grains (Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht).
Review the history of all theories of interstellar grains, ultimately arguing for their own theory, of which this is (from the astronomical point of view) the most detailed presentation.

F. Hoyle and B. Klyce, 1996 An Interview with Fred Hoyle about Panspermia.
Online illustrated presentation of Hoyle's views.

L.L. Hua, et al., 1985 Origins of Life 16:226.
Report on discovery of all five nucleic acid bases by HPLC and mass spectroscopy in Murchison, Murray, and Orgueil.

L.L. Hua, 1986 Origins of Life 16:226.
HPLC analysis of Murchison, Murray, and Orgueil reveals presence of all five nucleic acid bases.

W.F. Huebner, et al., 1987 Astrophysical Journal 320:L149.
Argue that the formaldehyde polymer polyoxymethylene has been detected in dust from Comet Halley.

I.D. Hutcheon and R. Hutchison, 1989 Nature 377:328.
Present evidence of excess decay products of Aluminum-26 in carbonaceous chondrites, implying this isotope may have been abundant enough in the early solar system to cause major heating of small bodies [e.g., the liquid comet cores of certain exobiological theories].

W.M. Irvine, et al., 1980 Nature 283:748.
Comets are thought to contain carbonaceous chondrite-like material and ice. Argue that liquid water may have existed on comets at various times, and that life may have arisen on them. Perhaps this is an origin for viroids, although Hoyle's comet-evolved viruses cannot be Earth's because ours all share a common genetic system with each other and other cells.

W.M. Irvine and A. Hjalmarson, 1984 Origins of Life 14:15.
Report on abundance of (mainly small) molecules in several dense interstellar clouds.

W.M. Irvine, et al., 1985 in D.C. Black and M.S. Matthews, eds., Protostars and Planets III (University of Arizona):579.
Review paper listing known chemical ingredients of interstellar medium and techniques for determining this. Note both overall uniformity of composition of quiescent clouds and various exceptions; compare isomeric abundance models with theory.

W.M. Irvine, et al., 1996, Nature 383:418.
Report detection of isomeric and normal hydrogen cyanide in ice of Comet Hyakutake; the ratio resembles that in interstellar clouds, not in the solar nebula.

C.P. Ivanov, et al., 1984 Origins of Life 14:61.
Report finding peptides as well as apparently indigenous (non-protein) amino acids in two ordinary chondrites, Goumoshnik and Pavel.

M.V. Ivanov and A.Yu. Lein, 1994 Advances in Space Research 15:215.
Explain the carbon isotope ratio of SNC meteorites in terms of a microbial reaction on Mars.

A.A. Jasinskaya, 1991 Mineral. Sb. (Lviv) 45:22.
Russian-language review article on organic matter in meteorites.

E.K. Jessberger and J. Kissel, 1987 Lunar and Planetary Science Conference XVII:466.
Report finding no evidence of excess decay products of Aluminum-26.

E.K. Jessberger and J. Kissel, 1991 in R.L. Newburn, et al., eds. Comets in the Post-Halley Era, Vol. II (Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht).
Report on Giotto and Vega observations of dust from Comet Halley.

I.R. Kaplan, et al., 1963 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 27:805.
Report amino acids and sugars in eight carbonaceous chondrites, five ordinary chondrites, and the Norton County achondrite. No optical rotation was detected--nor were pigments nor fatty acids. The distribution pattern of amino acids also seemed nonbiological.

V.I. Kasotchkin, et al., 1967 Doklady Ak. Nauk SSSR 177:348.
Report laboratory synthesis of carbynes.

R.A. Kerr, 1993 Science 261:427.
News article on a report by R. Binzel, et al., that the anomalous reddish asteroid Boznêmcová has the spectral signature of an ordinary chondrite, although it is too small to be the source of all chondrites.

R.A. Kerr, 1996 Science 273:1337.
News story on M. Gaffey's theory that half of all ordinary chondrites and many stony and stony-iron meteorites come from the S-type asteroid Hebe. He also suggests that Hebe's reddish tint is due to puddles of impact-melted iron, which would also explain the presence of once-melted iron in never-melted chondrites; other experts, however, attribute the red tint to ``space weathering.''

J.F. Kerridge and T.E. Bunch, 1980 in T. Gehrels, ed., Asteroids (University of Arizona):745.
Cite carbonaceous chondrites as evidence for former aqueous activity on asteroids.

J.F. Kerridge, et al., 1980 Meteoritics 15:313.
Describe distribution of carbonates in carbonaceous chondrites.

J.F. Kerridge, 1983 Earth and Planetary Science Letters 64:186.
The insoluable organic kerogens in Orgueil and Murray carbonaceous chondrites have same isotopic heterogeneity patterns, indicating a common source of kerogen itself (not of some precursor). This suggests ion-molecule reactions in interstellar clouds (rather than the solar nebula) might be responsible.

J.F. Kerridge and S. Chang, 1985 in D.C. Black and M.S. Matthews, eds., Protostars and Planets III (University of Arizona):738.
Review presence of carbon and of organic grains in carbonaceous chondrites; and suggest several interstellar origin possibilities: red giants, supernovæ, and clouds.

J.F. Kerridge, et al., 1987 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 51:2527.
Isotopic analysis suggests that ``kerogen'' in Murchison carbonaceous chrondrite has at least four components and a complex history. Relate different chemical and structural units in the kerogen-like organic extract from carbonaceous chondrites to different isotopic components. Argue that asome of the deuterium enrichment occurred in interstellar space, and that reactons as well as polymeriztion occurred there.

J.R. Kerridge, 1991 Origins of Life 21:19.
Suggests that deuterium enrichment took place in a molecular cloud, actual synthesis of organic compounds in an aqueous environment on the carbonaceous chondrite parent body.

J.F. Kerridge, et al., 1993 National Institute of Polar Research Symposium on Antarctic Meteorites 6:293.
Review of theories about abiotic synthesis of organic compounds on meteorites. Argue that these processes probably took place in interstellar clouds or on asteroids, not in the primordial solar nebula.

J.F. Kerridge, 1996 Science 274:161.
Letter describing the media's disinterest in his cautious assessment of the McKay paper; they wanted a ringing endorsement.

B.N. Khare, et al., 1989 Icarus 79:350.
Methane clathrate and other hydrocarbon ices change to dark color when irradiated by a plasma discharge. The colored material has an infrared spectrum suggesting the presence of aldehydes.

B.N. Khare, et al., 1991 Astrophysics and Space Science Library 173 (Origin and Evolution of Interplanetary Dust):99.
Compare infrared spectra of kerogen and insoluble organic residue of Murchison carbonaceous chondrite.

B.N. Khare, et al., 1993 Icarus 103:290.
Meaure the optical properties of (1:6)ethane-water ice tholin.

J. Kissel, et al., 1986 Nature 321:280.
Report first mass-spectroscopic results from Comet Halley, taken by the PUMA on the Vega spacecraft. The elements, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, were detected. Very light particles more common than theorists had predicted.

J. Kissel, et al., 1986 Nature 321:336.
Report on mass spectra of Comet Halley's dust taken by the PIA instrument aboard the Giotto. Very light particles much more abundant than anticipated. Most particles have low density and contain hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen.

J. Kissel and F.R. Krüger, 1987 Nature 326:755.
The Vega I spacecraft found Comet Halley's core to be chondritic with an unsaturated organic mantle. No biological grains observed.

M. Kitamura and A. Tsuchiyama, 1996, in R. H. Hewins, et al., eds., Chondrules and the Protoplanetary Disk (Cambridge University): 319.
Argue from laboratory experiments that chondrules in ordinary chondrites may originate from collisions of icy and slightly differentiated bodies.

B. Klyce, 1996- Cosmic Ancestry.
Web-site with arguments in favour of panspermia, especially the Hoyle-Wickramasinghe version.

R.F. Knacke, 1977 Nature 269:132.
Suggests a new carbonaceous substance exists in interstellar space to account for observed astronomical spectra, and perhaps is found in carbonaceous chondrites.

K. Kobayashi, et al., 1995 Advances in Space Research 16:21.
Irradiation of cometlike ices with protons produces hydrocarbons and amino acid precursors.

M. Komiya, et al., 1993 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 57:907.
Report on composition of insoluble organic matter in several Antarctic carbonaceous chondrites; it is mainly composed of benzene and naphthalene derivatives or of sulphur-containing heterocyclic compounds.

R.K. Kotra, et al., 1979 Journal of Molecular Evolution 13:179.
ALH-77306, a carbonaceous chondrite from Antarctica, contains racemized amino acids, both protein and non-protein.

R.K. Kotra, et al., 1981 in Y. Wolman, ed., Origin of Life (Reidel, Dordrecht).
Report identification of extraterrestrial amino acids in ALH-77306 and Yamato 74662 carbonaceous chondrites.

L. Kovalenko, et al., 1992 Analytical Chemistry 64:682.
Describe use of a special instrument to detect polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in six meteorites; carbonaceous chondrites and ordinary chondrites are significantly different.

W. Krätschmer, 1994 in K. Prassides, ed., Physics and Chemistry of the Fullerenes (Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht):1
Review paper on cross-connections between carbon allotrope chemistry and interstellar astrophysics.

R.V. Krishnamurthy, et al., 1992 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 56:4045.
Report chemical and isotopic analysis of hydrocarbons and monocarboxylic acids in the Murchison carbonaceous chondrite. Observe that different classes of compounds exhibit different deuterium enrichment.

H.R. Krouse and V.E. Modzeleski, 1970 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 34:459.
Report that carbon isotope ratio in nine carbonaceous chondrites is different by a factor of three from terrestrial samples.

F.R. Krüger, 1994 Advances in Space Reseach 15:407.
Discusses carbonaceous matter found in dust and coma of Comet Halley, with special emphasis on possible aromatic heterocyclic ions of prebiotic importance.

D. Kushner, 1980 in C. Ponnaperuma, ed., 1980 Comets and the Origin of Life (Reidel, Dordrecht):241.
Notes that although many organisms can survive in extreme environments, there do exist limits to the tolerable and argues that comets, unless they contain liquid water, fall beyond them.

K.A. Kvenvolden, et al., 1970 Nature 228:923.
Report that amino acids and other organic molecules on Murchison carbonaceous chondrite are extraterrestrial because they are racemic, have an unusual isotope distribution, and include non-protein species rare on Earth.

J.H. Lacy, et al., 1984 Astrophysical Journal 276:533.
Report observation of solid carbon monoxide and cyano group molecules near ``protostellar'' compact infrared sources.

J.H. Lacy, et al., 1991 Astrophysical Journal 376:556.
Report observation of both gaseous and solid methane in interstellar clouds.

A. Laczano-Araujo and J. Oró, 1980 in C. Ponnaperuma, ed., 1980 Comets and the Origin of Life (Reidel, Dordrecht):191.
Major review article on theory that comets of the Great Bombardment introduced prebiotic molecules to Earth.

M.S. Lancet and E. Anders, 1970 Science 170:980.
Fischer-Tropsch reaction products show a distribution of carbon isotopes similar to that observed in carbonaceous chondrites. This suggests that carbonaceous chondrites formed in solar nebula. Carbonates are among the products observed.

J.G. Lawless, et al., 1971 Science 173:626.
Identify 17 amino acids in the Murray meteorite. Seven are racemic; eleven are not found in protein.

J.G. Lawless, et al., 1972 Nature 236:66.
Mass spectroscopy and gas chromatography are used to identify amino acids in the Orgueil sample, probably not contaminants.

J.G. Lawless, et al., 1972 Scientific American 226:38(June).
Popular review article on organic content of carbonaceous chondrites.

J.G. Lawless, 1973 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 37:2207.
Report on amino acids isolated from Murchison carbonaceous chondrite.

N.R. Lerner, et al., 1993 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 57:4713.
Describe experiment to measure retention of deuterium by amino acids produced by the Strecker synthesis.

J.S. Levine, et al., 1980 in C. Ponnaperuma, ed., 1980 Comets and the Origin of Life (Reidel, Dordrecht):161.
Present a model of the early atmosphere, emphasizing the role of ozone in controlling astmospheric photochemistry. Particularly interested in the effect of flux of comets introducing water; conclude this produced a cloud of ice crystals in upper atmosphere which might have acted as a radiation shield, rather like the ozone layer later on.

R.L. Levy, et al., 1970 Nature 227:148.
Describe recovery of organic material from the Pueblito de Allende carbonaceous chondrite; refute claim that it was contaminated, pointing out that more organic material is inside than is on the surface.

R.L. Levy, et al., 1973 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 37:467.
Report on various organic compounds extracted from the Murchison sample; they are said to be comparable with Fischer-Tropsch synthesis.

W.F. Libby, 1971 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S. 68:377.
Because Murchison carbonaceous chondrite amino acids are racemic, they are extraterrestrial. However, the carbon isotopic signature is the same as that of terrestrial sediments, implying carbon isotope ratios are the same on Earth as in space.

C.B. Lipman, 1932 American Museum Novitates # 588.
Reports that externally sterilized samples of ordinary chondrites, irons, and a howardite all yielded both cocci and bacilli within 48 hours.

C.B. Lipman, 1932 American Museum Novitates # 589.
Reports discovery of organic nitrogen compounds in ordinary chondrite samples.

C.B. Lipman, 1936 Popular Astronomy 44:442.
Reports discovery of living bacteria in meteorites.

C. M. Lisse, et al., 1996 Science 274:205.
Report observing X-ray and extreme UV emission from Comet Hyakutake. Literature search suggests other comets (Tsuchiya-Kiuchi, Levy, Arai, and Honda-Mrkos-Padjusakova) also X-ray luminous. The source of the radiation may be 0.4 keV Bremsstrahlung due to interaction of comet's magnetic field with solar wind.

G.J.H. McCall, 1973 Meteorites and their Origins (John Wiley, New York).
An introduction to the study of meteorites, including a chapter on the Nagy controversy.

G.D. McDonald and J.L. Bada, 1995 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 59:1179.
Report finding non-racemic amino acids, assumed to be terrestrial contaminants, in SNC meteorite EETA 79001. The distribution resembles that found in Antarctic ice.

G.D. McDonald et al., 1996 Icarus 122:107.
Report production of a new tholin by irradiating ices which simulate those in comets; the new tholin includes polyalcohol and other organic functional groups.

J.D. Macdougall, et al., 1984 Nature 307:249.
Measured strontium isotopic composition of carbonates and sulphates in the Orgueil carbonaceous chondrite; they assume these compounds to have crystallized from aqueous solution. Conclude that the carbonates formed around the same time as the parent body, the sulphates much more recently.

D.S. McKay, et al. 1996 Science 273:924.
Report discovery of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, carbonate globules similar to bacterially induced precipitates, and possible microfossils in Antarctic SNC meteorite ALH84001. Mirror site (EurekAlert).

H.Y. McSween, 1987 Meteorites and their Parent Planets (Cambridge University).
One of the best general introductions to meteorites.

H.Y. McSween, 1994 Meteoritics 29:214.
Review article on Martian meteorites.

H.Y. McSween, 1996 Meteoritics 31:691.
Brief summary of McKay's contentions by a ``hopeful skeptic''.

G. Mamikunian and M.H. Briggs, 1963 Nature 197:1245.
Describe ``microstructures of complex morphology'' seen in eight carbonaceous chondrites.

G. Mamikunian and M.H. Briggs, 1963 Science 139:873.
In light of widespread disagreement over nature of ``microstructures,'' the authors prepared a photographic catalogue, available (at the time) from JPL.

J.N. Marcus and M.A. Olson, 1989 in R.L. Newborn, et al., eds., Comets in the Post-Halley Era (Kluwer Ac., Dordrecht):439.
Review article on biological implications of comet organics. Stongly support idea that volatile elements required by life supplied by comets. Also present evidence for supply of more complex prebiotic molecules and discuss panspermia--while life on comets is deemed possible, it is considered unlikely as origin of terrestrial life. Point out in passing that viruses are made noninfective by formaldehyde, which is common in comets. Give a particularly good review of arguments for and against liquid water in comet cores.

M.N. Mautner, et al., 1995 Planetary and Space Science 43:139.
Report that humic acid bacteria and oligotrophs can live in Murchison carbonaceous chondrite extract, and that nonanoic acid from the extract forms vesicles. This suggests meteorites may have played a role both in biogenesis and in nourishing early organisms.

W.G. Meinschein, et al., 1963 Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 108:553.
Find saturated hydrocarbon content and behavior of carbonaceous chondrite meteorites and terrestrial marine sediments to be similar.

W.G. Meinschein, 1966 Science 154:377.
Reports optical activity (Cotton effect) in Homestead and Holbrook ordinary chondrites. However, is reluctant to attribute this to anything other than contamination.

H.J. Melosh, 1988 Nature 332:687.
Investigates whether spall ejection of terrestrial rocks near a meteorite impact could contaminate Mars by panspermia. Concludes that boulders large enough to provide sufficient shielding are sometimes ejected, although they would probably be in space for millions of years before arriving on Mars.

S. Meunier, 1881 Comptes Rendus 93:737.
Describes an attempt to create artificial minerals, including some resembling those in meteorites.

S.L. Miller, et al., 1976 Journal of Molecular Evolution 9:59.
Review various theories of the origin of organic compounds on earth and in meteorites. Conclude electric discharges, UV, and to a lesser extent the Fischer-Tropsch reaction may all have played a role.

S.L. Miller and J.L. Bada, 1993 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 57:3473.
Argue against Shock and Schulte 1990 that abundance of amino acids in Murchison meteorite is not correlated with solubility, nor should it be.
Shock and Schulte reply: they say their work is being misrepresented here.

K. Mimura, 1995 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 59:579.
Synthesized polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons reported in carbonaceous chondrites by passing shockwaves through benzene.

D.W. Mittlefehldt, 1994 Meteoritics 29:214.
Reports identification of ALH84001, previously considered a diogenic, as an SNC.

M.H. Moore and B. Donn, 1982 Astrophysical Journal 257:L47.
Report that an ice containing water, ammonia, and methane or propane, when irradiated with protons, produces an organic residue with an infrared spectrum including a 3.4 micron peak like that seen in space.

M.H. Moore, et al., 1983 Icarus 54:388.
Attempt to simulate chemistry of an Oort cloud comet by irradiating various ices. Long-chained volatile hydrocarbons and other high-molecular-weight carbon compounds produced when methane is present. Suggest release of radiation-synthesized material causes comet outbursts.

M.H. Moore and T. Tanabé, 1990 Astrophysical Journal 365:L39.
Laboratory mass spectra of sputtered polyoxymethylene resemble spectra taken at Comet Halley by the Giotto spacecraft. Suggest sputtering as a mechanism for removal of molecules from grains.

G. Moreels, et al., 1994 Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds 5:107.
Identify UV peaks in spectrum of Comet Halley as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: phenanthrene and probably naphthalene.

M. A. Moreno, 1988 Nature 336:209.
Argues that dust stirred up by meteorite impacts and propelled by sunlight could provide very rapid (less than one year) transport of material between Earth and Mars, in contrast to the long times cited by Melosh.

H. Morowitz, 1996 Science 273:1639.
Questions biological significance of magnetite in McKay sample, because Mars has too weak a magnetic field for bacteria to navigate with it, and says that the ``microfossils'' are too small physically to have been alive. (They are two orders of magnitude smaller than mycoplasma).
McKay, et al., reply: bacteria on Earth do not necessarily use magnetite for navigation and in any case the past magnetic history of Mars is unknown. Terrestrial microfossils have been reported comparable in size to those on ALH84001.

P. Morrison, 1962 Science 135:663.
Suggests the ``organized elements'' seen by Nagy are organic analogues of snowflakes; such objects may themselves have played a role in the evolution of life.

G. Mueller, 1953 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 4:1.
Reports on organic content of Cold Bokkeveld carbonaceous chondrite. It is optically neutral, suggesting that organic matter formed abiotically from the atmosphere of the parent body.

G. Mueller, 1962 Nature 196:929.
Interprets microstructures of carbonaceous chondrites as inorganic mineral inclusions.

L. Mukhin, et al., 1991 Nature 350:480.
Argue that dust grains in coma of Comet Halley fall into two populations, one chondritic and the other not.

F. Mullie and J. Reisse, 1987 Topics in Current Chemistry 139:83.
Review article on organic matter in carbonaceous chondrites.

M.J. Mumma and D.C. Reuter, 1989 Astrophysical Journal 344:940.
Report spectroscopic identification of formaldehyde in Comet Halley.

M.J. Mumma, 1996 Nature 383:581.
News article on mounting evidence (mainly from Comet Hyakutake) that comets formed in interstellar-cloud stage of solar system evolution, not in the solar nebula.

T. Murae, 1994 Proceedings of the National Institute of Polar Research Symposium on Antarctic Meteorites 7:22.
Fourier-transform infrared spectra of several carbonaceous chondrites indicate that similar organic compounds must exist in all samples; the spectrum is similar to kerogen (coal).

Z.A. Mushina and E.A. Glebovskaya, 1991 Doklady Bulg. Akad. Nauk 44:47.
Russian-language: the Sikhote-Alin iron is compared with fossiliferous rock from the Lower Silurian subjected to strong contact metamorphism. Organic material from the two samples is found to be very similar, and it is suggested that this is evidence of biological origin for the meteoritic organic matter.

B. Nagy, et al., 1961 Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 93:27.
Nagy's most celebrated article; so celebrated that someone stole it from MIT's library, so we haven't read it---yet another reason that everything should be online!

B. Nagy, et al., 1962 Nature 193:1129.
Report discovery of organized structures identical to those of the Orgueil stone in the Tonk and Alais stones, ruling out local contamination. Report tests showing that the structures are not inorganic particles of Anders, as claimed by Fitch, et al., 1962. Say they compared microstructures to dust samples from museums and found no resemblance.

B. Nagy and G. Claus, 1962 in U. Columbo and G.D. Hobson, eds., Advances in Organic Geochemistry (Pergamon, New York).
Describe the ``organized structures'' and argue that some, at least, are fossil organisms.

B. Nagy and M.C. Bitz, 1963 Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 101:240.
Report isolating long-chain fatty acids from Orgueil sample, resembling chains found in ancient terrestrial sediments.

B. Nagy, et al., 1963 Nature 198:121.
Electron probe x-ray microanalysis of 28 ``organized elements'' in Orgueil sample reveals presence of iron and other substances. It is argued that mineralization with iron precludes possibility of contamination.

B. Nagy, et al., 1963 Nature 200:565.
Report on UV spectra of ``organized elements'' in Orgueil carbonaceous chondrite.

B. Nagy and C. Anderson, 1964 American Mineralogist 49:1085.
Electron probe microanalysis reveals carbonate, sulfate, and phosphate minerals in Orgueil.

B. Nagy, et al., 1964 Nature 202:228.
Report on optical activity of saponified organic extract from Orgueil carbonaceous chondrite. Suggest this is evidence of biological activity.

B. Nagy, 1966 Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar 88:235.
English-language review article on investigations of Orgueil meteorite.

B. Nagy, 1966 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S. 56:389.
Identifies possible source of error in measuring optical activity of lipids in natural samples; designs methods to reduce them. Finds that Orgueil carbonaceous chondrite lipids are optically active, even so.

B. Nagy, 1967 Review of Palæobotany and Palynology 3:237.
Summarizes his own work on carbonaceous chondrites.

B. Nagy, 1975 Carbonaceous Chondrites (Elsevier, Amsterdam).
In survey of field, includes his work on organized structures which he still seems to suspect are biological. Also contains material on XIX-Century life-in-meteorite controversies.

H. Naraoka, et al., 1988 Chemistry Letters 1988:831.
Report on hydrocarbons extracted from Yamato-791198 carbonaceous chondrite.

N.H. Nininger, 1933 Popular Astronomy 41:214.
Attributes Lipman's results to terrestrial contamination.

D.W. Nooner and J. Oró, 1967 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 31:1359.
Found aliphatic hydrocarbons in extracts from 30 meteorites (iron, ordinary chondrites, and carbonaceous chondrites). Also found isomeric alkanes in most samples. No even-or-odd preference in length of alkanes, except in Orgueil sample.

D.W. Nooner, et al., 1976 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 40:915.
A series of Fischer-Tropsch experiments using meteoritic and terrestrial iron produced aromatic hydrocarbons and, in one case, fatty acids.

E. S. Olson, 1992, Nature 357:202 Argues that the KT boundary amino acids are not extraterrestrial, but the result of coal gasification by volcanism.

R.J. Olson, et al., 1967 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 31:1935.
Found very small quantities of aromatic hydrocarbons in extracts from a number of carbonaceous chondrites.

J. Oró, 1961 Nature 190:389.
Suggests that comets transported various carbon compounds to Earth, where they were transformed into life.

J. Oró and H.B. Skewes, 1965 Nature 207:1042.
Study the question of amino acid contamination of microsamples (in general) by human skin. Conclude that most reported carbonaceous chondrite amino acids are contamination.

J. Oró and T. Tornabene, 1965 Science 150:1046.
Isolate live bacteria of three common types from Orgueil and Mokoia carbonaceous chondrites, and conclude they are obviously contamination.

J. Oró and E. Gelpi, 1969 in P.M. Miller, ed., Meteorite Research (D. Reidel, Dordrecht):518.
Report identifying nine homologous series of isomeric alkanes (as well as the normal series) in a GC study of nine carbonaceous chondrite samples. Similar results obtained with three iron meteorites. Every sample found to include isoprenoid structures distributed in a way more similar to the distribution in terrestrial sediments and crude oil than to that in Fischer-Tropsch process.

J. Oró, et al., 1971 Nature 230:105.
Reports discovery of amino acids, aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons in Murchison carbonaceous chondrite. They are approximately racemic, suggesting a non-biological origin.

J. Oró, et al., 1994 Advances in Space Research 15:81.
Review article on theory that comets supplied essential prebiotic materials to the Earth.

U. Ott, 1993 Nature 364:25.
Review article on interstellar grains in meteorites.

P. Palik, 1962 Nature 194:1065.
Reports observation of odd filamentary structures in the Orgueil carbonaceous chondrite; is reminded of algae.

P. Parsons, 1996 Nature 383:221.
News article about Seckev's proposal that carbon grains from red giants provide naturally shielded vehicles for panspermia.

R. Pearson, 1962 Nature 194:1064.
Attempts to identify structures seen by Nagy, et al., as pollen, presumably a contaminant.

E.T. Peltzer and J.L. Bada, 1978 Nature 272:443.
Report presence of seven alpha-hydroxycarboxylic acids in Murchison carbonaceous chondrite. This is taken as evidence of Strecker synthesis; a laboratory simulation produced similar results.

K.L. Pering and C. Ponnamperuma, 1971 Science 173:237.
Reports discovery in the Murchison carbonaceous chondrite of aromatic hydrocarbons, distributed in a way suggesting they were synthesized at high temperatures.

H.D. Pflug, 1984 Naturwissenschaften 71:531.
Reports that TEM observations of Orgueil, Murchison, and Allende carbonaceous chondrites and of micrometeorites all show numerous tubular and spherical vesicles, 10-500 nm in size. States that microprobe analyses show them to be indigenous. Suggests they provide evidence of prebiotic chemical evolution at a high level of complexity.

S. Pizzarello, et al., 1991 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 55:905.
Try to show that the isotope enrichment of the amino acids in the Murchison carbonaceous chondrite is a real effect, residing in the amino acids and not in some other component of the meteorite.

C.T. Pillinger, 1982 Nature 296:802.
Reviews history of amino acid findings in carbonaceous chondrites, which until Engel and Nagy's report of 1982 were always said to be racemic (unlike biological amino acids.)

C.T. Pillinger, 1987 Nature 326:445.
Article about the history of origin theories of organic content of carbonaceous chondrites, culminating in Epstein and Krishnamurthy's view that the amino and carboxylic acids originate in interstellar clouds.

L.G. Pleasant, 1980 in C. Ponnaperuma, ed., 1980 Comets and the Origin of Life (Reidel, Dordrecht):255.
Bibliography on comets and origin of life.

J.B. Pollack, et al., 1978 Science 199:66.
Viking photographs suggest that Phobos has a carbonaceous chondrite composition.

C. Ponnamperuma, 1971 Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics 4:77.
Review article on the origin of life, including carbonaceous chondrite studies.

C. Ponnamperuma and E. Ochai, 1982 in L.L. Wilkening, ed., Comets (University of Arizona).
Argue that prebiotic processes in comets unlikely to reach the biological stage. Criticize Wickramasinghe and Hoyle on general grounds.

S.S. Prasad and S.P. Tarafdar, 1983 Astrophysical Journal 267:603.
Argue that cosmic ray excitation of hydrogen molecules will lead to considerable ultraviolet flux deep in cloud interiors, which would be otherwise shielded. Suggest this as mechanism for release of molecules from grain surfaces.

D. Prialnik and A. Bar-Nun, 1987 Astrophysical Journal 313:893.
Numerical simulation of a ball of amorphous ice moving in Comet Halley's orbit. It generates heat (and perhaps water volcanism) through a discrete series of rounds of amorphous-to-crystalline phase transitions.

D. Prialnik, et al., 1987 Astrophysical Journal 319:993.
Develop a theoretical model of the effect of radioactive heating on evolution of spherical, comet-sized icy bodies. Among other things, argue against the possibility of liquid core coexisting with an amorphous icy mantle.

D. Prialnik and M. Podolak, 1995 Icarus 117:420.
Mathematical model of radioactive heating in comet nuclei, including conditions under which a comet could have a liquid core.

F.B. Reed, 1973 Journal of Theoretical Biology 39:683.
Attacks Ageno's paper on racemization because the same argument would prove fossil shells or bones are abiotic. (They, too, are racemic because of their age.)

J. Reisse and F. Mullie, 1993 Pure and Applied Chemistry 65:1281.
Review of the different theories on the origin of organic matter in carbonaceous chondrites.

S.M. Richardson, 1978 Meteoritics 13:141.
Veins in the Orgueil, Alais, and Ivuna carbonaceous chondrites seem to be the result of impact brecciation followed by aqueous leaching.

H. Rickman, 1989 in R.L. Newborn, et al., eds., Comets in the Post-Halley Era Vol. II:733.
Argues against the existence of liquid or crystalline ice cores in comets.

F. Robert, 1993 Actual. Chim. 1993:24.
Argues that meteorite organic molecules reflect the organic compounds in interstellar space, in spite of difference in isotope ratios of interstellar and meteoritic organic molecules.

C.S. Romanek, et al., 1994 Nature 372:655.
Report isotope measurements on ALH84001 which suggest that carbonates were precipitated from a fluid on the Martian crust at a temperature less than 100°.

M. Rossignol-Strick and E.S. Barghoorn, 1971 Space Life Sciences 3:89.
When Orgueil fragments treated in way terrestrial sediments would be to extract pollen and spores, numerous spherical hollow objects found. Although they look biogenic, they are not in a sedimentary matrix. Perhaps they are glass/magnetite globules coated in some organic substance by a thermal process.

S.K. Roy, 1935 ``The Question of Living Bacteria in Stony Meteorites.'' Field Museum, Geology, Series 4, 179-98.
Attack on C.B. Lipman's claim.

S.K. Roy, 1937 Popular Astronomy 45:499.
Charles Lipman claimed to have found living bacteria in stony meteorites. Roy doubts this, pointing out Lipman had also ``found'' living bacteria in ancient terrestrial rocks and coal, but that other scientists had failed to verify this. Roy also tried to obtain living cultures from meteorites, but failed.

S.S. Russell et al., 1996 Science 273:757
Report excess Aluminium-26 decay products in ordinary chondrites and argue that this reflects high Al-26 level in Solar Nebula.

C. Sagan and B.N. Khare, 1979 Nature 277:102.
Argue that interstellar grains are made of ``tholins,'' complex organic solids.

C. Sagan and B.N. Khare, 1979 Nature 281:708.
Reply to criticism of Whittet; argue that the peak he says is missing does not occur in tholins.

A. Sakata, et al., 1977 Nature 266:241.
Report that meteoritic inclusions in the Murchison carbonaceous chondrite have a UV spectrum similar to interstellar space, suggesting that it includes interstellar grains.

A. Sakata, et al., 1983 Nature 301:493.
Absorption spectrum of carbonaceous material formed in laboratory from a hydrogen/carbon plasma has peak in same place as interstellar extinction curve.

F. Salama and L.J. Allamandola, 1992 Nature 358:42.
Suggest on the basis of laboratory matrix-isolation spectra of pyrene that ionized polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons may cause the diffuse interstellar band at 4430 Å.

F. Salama and L.J. Allamandola, 1993 Journal of the Chemical Society Faraday Transactions 89:2277.
Suggest that some of the diffuse interstellar bands are caused by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: naphtalene, phenanthrene, and pyrene.

S.A. Sandford, et al., 1991 Astrophysical Journal 371:607.
Two uncorrelated bands near 3.4 microns are observed in the interstellar medium and attributed to OH and CH stretching in different molecular species, including complex organic molecules.

S.A. Sandford, et al., 1995 Astrophysics Journal 440:697.
Find that, like the Si-O stretching band, the C-H stretching band of the interstellar medium is most intense near galactic center. This suggests that the dust is composed of silicate grains with an organic coating, concentrated in the inner galaxy. Some models are presented to explain this distribution.

W.A. Schutte, et al., 1993 Icarus 104:118.
Found that, in the presence of even trace quantities of ammonia, formaldehyde-water ices produce numerous reaction products when warmed, especially polyoxymethylene and its derivatives.

W.A. Schutte, et al., 1993 Science 259:1143.
Found that simulated comet ices containing formaldehyde will form complex organics, especially polyoxymethylene derivatives, in the presence of trace quantities of ammonia. These organics could be used as tracers of cometary history, and could explain 3% of the organics in Comet Halley's coma.

R. Score, et al., 1993 Antarctic Meteorite Newsletter 16:(no page).
Basic description and photographs of ALH84 001, including macroscopic description, thin section description, and oxygen isotope analysis.

E.R.D. Scott, 1980 in T. Gehrels, ed., Asteroids (University of Arizona):892.
Reviews theories of origin of irons. It is hard to believe that they are the result of 50 asteroids 100 km wide breaking up as cooling rate from chemical data indicate; perhaps they originated by a more complicated multi-stage process, but there are problems.

J. Secker, et al., 1994 Astrophysics and Space Science 219:1.
Argue that ice is incapable of shielding organisms ejected in grains from ultraviolet damage, but carbonaceous films might be more effective, at least near one-solar-mass red giants.

J. Secker, et al., 1996 Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society and astro-ph 9607139.
Argue that panspermia by organisms embedded in light-pressure propelled dust grains is practical if the grains are made of carbon or similarly absorbent material, and if ejection takes place during red giant stage. Even if the organisms did not survive the trip, their nucleic acids would.

G. Shaw and J. Brooks, 1969 Nature 223:754.
Argue that sporopollenin, an ingredient of pollen, is present in large quantity (~4%) in the insoluable organic part of the Orgueil and Murray carbonaceous chondrites, and that it is NOT a contaminant. Claim similar results in PreCambrian terrestrial sediments.

J. Shi, et al., 1978 Geochimica 1978:57.
Chinese language: Report finding hydrocarbons, purine, and pyrimidine in the Jilin meteorite.

J. Shi, et al., 1992 Diqiu Huaxue 1992:34.
Chinese language: Report extracting and analyzing organic matter from the Ningqiang carbonaceous chondrite.

A. Shimoyama, et al., 1979 Nature 282:394.
Report discovery of racemic amino acids in the Antarctic Yamato carbonaceous chondrite.

A. Shimoyama, et al., 1986 Origins of Life 16:215.
Report finding amino acids, carboxylic acids, aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons in Antarctic carbonaceous chondrite Yamato-791198, but not in two others.

A. Shimoyama, et al., 1990 Geochemical Journal 24:343.
Report finding some nucleic acid bases in Yamato-74662 and -791198 but not in Yamato-793321 or Belgica-7904.

A. Shimoyama, 1993 Viva Origino 21:157.
Japanese-language review article on organic chemistry of carbonaceous chondrites.

E.L. Shock and M.D. Schulte, 1990 Nature 343:728.
Interested in idea that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons condense onto inorganic grains, and are then aqueously altered to form amino acids. Try to calculate distribution of aqueous organic compounds in equilibrium with different polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as function of gas fugacities. The results, though inconclusive, are encouraging.

P.G. Simmons, et al., 1969 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S. 64:1027.
Argue an insoluble, coal-like nongraphitic aromatic polymer exists in the Pueblito de Allende carbonaceous chondrite.

J.L. Smith, 1882 Popular Science 20:568.
Attacks Hahn's claims. Has looked at many meteorites and never seen any fossils; there would be carbonate of lime present if the fossils were genuine, and in any case, meteorites are igneous, not sedimentary.

P.K. Smith and P.R. Buseck, 1982 Science 216:984.
Questions the existence anywhere of carbynes and of the mineral chaoite.

P.E. Spielmann, 1924 Nature 114:276.
Denies existence of bitumen in meteorites, as claimed by Berzelius, et al.; argues that a hydrocarbon forms after the arrival on earth of the meteorite, by reaction of iron-nickel carbide with terrestrial water.

P.G. Stoks and A.W. Schwartz, 1979 Nature 282:709.
Report discovery of pyrimidines in Murchison, Murray, and Orgueil carbonaceous chondrites.

P.G. Stoks and A.W. Schwartz, 1981 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 45:563.
Purines extracted from Murchison, Murray, and Orgueil carbonaceous chondrites. Hydroxypyrimidines and triazines not observed; perhaps earlier workers who reported them accidentally synthesized them in process of extraction. It is hard to say what abiotic process of the several candidates best explains the data.

M.H. Studier, et al., 1965 Science 149:1455.
Studied organic content of Orgueil, Cold Bokkevold, and Murray carbonaceous chondrites. Argue that equilibrium processes in the solar nebula, not biological processes, are responsible for observed properties.

M.H. Studier, et al., 1966 Science 152:106.
Response to Urey-Lewis, 1966 attack on Studier's 1965 paper.

M.H. Studier, et al., 1972 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 36:189.
Defend idea that Fischer-Tropsch reaction can account for most (though not all) properties of meteorite organic matter. Also report on extraction of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, as well as porphyrin-like pigments, from Murchison carbonaceous chondrite; isoprenoids are also observed but considered contaminants because they are near the surface.

K. Tamaru, 1972 American Scientist 60:474.
Describes methods of catalysis in chemistry of lamellar compounds; suggests that this may have a role in condensation of extraterrestrial organic material and origins of life.

P. Tasch, 1964 Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 105:927.
Finds organized structures in meteorites and not in control slides, so they could not be contaminants from lab, although they might be contaminants from years past since fall.

S.R. Taylor, 1991 Meteoritics 26:267.
Uses chemical and isotopic data from carbonaceous chondrites to model evolution of early solar system. Argues that planetary meteoritic formation zones are distinct.

W. Thomson [Lord Kelvin], 1871 Nature 4:262.
An address to the British association for the Advancement of Science, describing the current state of science and reflecting the speaker's anti-Darwinian views. At the end, suggests that life was seeded on Earth by meteorites: ``moss-grown fragments from the ruins of another world.''
Burke, 1986 says that this address was discussed unfavorably in the letters of Joseph Hooker to Charles Darwin, and was also criticized by T.H. Huxley.

A.G. Tielens, 1983 Astronomy and Astrophysics 119:177.
Numerical calculation of deuterium enrichment in ion-molecule and grain surface reactions in the solar nebula.

T.N. Tingle, et al., 1991 Meteoritics 26:117.
Describe a new method of studying organic compounds in meteorites--photoionization time-of-flight mass spectroscopy--which is capable of reproducing results of conventional methods using only nanomole samples.

C.A. Tobias and P. Todd, eds., 1974 Space Radiation Biology and Related Topics (Academic, New York).
A collection of articles on all aspects of the biological effects of radiation in the space environment.

L.J. de Tolla, 1996 Science 273:1640.
Notes that Coxiella, a bacterium, is only five times larger than the McKay microfossils.

K. Tomeoka and P.R. Buseck, 1986 Science 231:1544.
Describe TEM observations of a hydrated interplanetary dust particle, the Calrissian particle. It proved extraordinarily rich in carbonates; if interstellar dust resembles interplanetary dust, this could explain the 6.8 micron spectra feature. The presence of carbonates in interplanetary dust might suggest carbonates in carbonaceous chondrites are not due to aqueous alteration, but are older.

A. H. Treiman, 1996 Fossil Life in ALH 84001? (http://cass.jsc.nasa.gov/pub/lpi/meteorites/life.html)
A detailed explanation of the McKay paper for non-specialists.

H.C. Urey, 1962 Nature 193:1119.
Argues the Moon was captured by the Earth and in the process contaminated with terrestrial water. Also argues that carbonaceous chondrites come from the Moon. Attacks Gilvarry's theory that the Moon once had oceans and points out that carbonaceous chondrites are not sedimentary.

H.C. Urey, 1962 Science 137:623.
Reports on New York Academy of Sciences meeting, 1 May, 1962, where various participants in the Nagy affair met.

H.C. Urey, 1965. Science 147:1262.
Popular presentation of his lunar theory.

H.C. Urey, 1966 in B.G.Marsen and A.G.W. Cameron, eds., The Earth-Moon System (Plenum, New York) .
Very brief account with full bibliography of Urey's own papers on the lunar capture theory.

H.C. Urey, 1966 Science 151:157.
Review article on biological material in meteorites, especially in carbonaceous chondrites.

H.C. Urey and J.R. Arnold, 1966 in C.S. Pittendrigh et al., eds., Biology and the Exploration of Mars (National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council).
Brief review article on organic substances and microfossils in carbonaceous chondrites.

H.C. Urey and J.S. Lewis, 1966 Science 152:102.
Attack on Studier et al.'s claim that mass spectrometry of Orgueil has given information about chemical equilibrium of solar nebula. Question their experimental work and raise possibility of contamination. Argue instead that compounds the group observed must have been formed either by high energy processes or biologically.

H.C. Urey, 1968 Naturwissenschaft 55:49.
Argues that carbonaceous chondrites come from the Moon and that the Moon once had water, which was deposited from Earth in the capture process.

S.L. VanLandingham, 1965 Nature 208:947.
Reports microfossil-like structures in the Alais and Orgueil carbonaceous chondrites. Also observed very small amount of fungus, pollen, etc., presumed to be terrestrial contamination. No contamination seen on Bruderheim stony meteorite, and no microfossils. Feels the microfossils are genuinely extraterrestrial.

S.L. VanLandingham, 1967 Nature 216:252.
Electron microscope examination of Orgueil slices. Observed organized structures which are unlike mineral inclusions in that they are electron opaque. These structures seem too deeply imbedded to be contaminants.

G.P. Vdovykin, 1962 Geochemistry International 1962:152.
Reports extracting bituminous matter from the Groznaya and Mighei carbonaceous chondrites.

G.P. Vdovykin and N.V. Pomortseva, 1962 Geochemistry International 1962:1251.
Successfully cultured hydrocarbon-oxidizing bacteria on samples of Groznaya and Mighei carbonaceous chondrites. Argue that this somehow shows that organic material in carbonaceous chondrites is due to the meteorite itself and not to biogenic elements.

G.P. Vdovykin, 1964 Geochemistry International 1964:693.
Observes "organized structures" in the Mighei carbonaceous chondrite and concludes they are non-biological, because they are identical with non-biological structures as reported earlier.

G.P. Vdovykin, 1965 in N.I. Khitarov, ed. Problems of Geochemistry (Israel Program for Scientific Translations).
Reviews his own work on the organic content of carbonaceous chondrites.

G.P. Vdovykin, 1969 in P.A. Schenck and I. Havenaar, eds. Advances in Organic Geochemistry '68 (Pergamon, Oxford).
In a review of various forms of carbon in meteorites, argues that biological activity is present and should be considered a normal part of carbon chemistry.

A.P. Vinogradov, et al., 1964 Geochemistry International 1964:831.
Report on EPR investigation of free radicals in carbonaceous chondrites. Theorize that cosmic radiation is the energy source by which complex organic molecules are non-biologically evolved from simpler ones.

C. Vogt, 1882 Les Prétendus Organismes des Météorites (Georg, Geneva)
Attacks the work of Hahn and Weinland on the Knyahinya stone, saying the structures observed do not look biological.

M. Wallis, 1980 Nature 284:431.
Argues that the center of a comet would be originally liquid, due to Aluminum-26, and potentially hospitable to life.

T.J. Wdowiak, et al., 1988 Astrophysical Journal 328:L75.
Report that nonvolatile organic extract of Orgueil carbonaceous chondrite pressed onto KBr pellet has spectrum resembling the Orion nebula's, and also a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon band similar to an observed, unidentified interstellar band.

T.J. Wdowiak, et al., 1988 Astrophysics And Space Science Library 149 (Exp. Cosmic Dust Analogues:145.
Black acid-insoluble extract from Orgueil carbonaceous chondrite has infrared spectrum resembling polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

T.J. Wdowiak, et al., 1988 Astrophysics And Spsce Science Library 149 (Exp. Cosmic Dust Analogues):271.
Bombarding a frozen mixture of gases and irradiating with protons resulted in particulate matter with a spectrum resembling acid insoluble extract from Orgueil carbonaceous chondrite.

O.F. Weinland, 1882 Ueber die in Meteoriten entdecken Thierreste (Esslingen: Fröhner)
Verifies Hahn's claim of having discovered numerous invertebrate fossils in the Knyahinya ordinary chondrite.

P. Weber and J.M. Greenberg, 1985 Nature 316:403.
In an attempt to constrain panspermia hypothesis, placed Bacillus subtilis spores in a vacuum under ultraviolet light. Found less damage at normal interstellar temperature (10K) than at higher temperatures. Suggest that 10% survival times in deep space would be on the order of centuries, too short for panspermia, but inside clouds, survival times of megayears would be possible.

M. W. West et al., (yearly series) 1970-Present Bibliography on the Origins of Life and Chemical Evolution.
The journal Origins of Life has been publishing a bibliography of papers on chemical evolution more or less yearly since 1970; we highly recommend this series, although the number of articles indexed (alphabetically by author, without comments) makes it somewhat cumbersome to use.

G.W. Wetherill and C.R. Chapman, 1988, in J.F. Kerridge and M.S. Matthews, eds., Meteorites and the Early Solar System (University of Arizona):35.
Present the late XX Century concensus view that most meteorites originate in asteroid belt as asteroidal fragments.

A.G. Whittaker, et al., 1980 Science 209:1512.
Isotopic analysis of Allende and Murchison noble gas component indicates that carbynes in the latter, but not in the former, are of extra-solar origin, possibly interstellar grains.

D.C.B. Whittet, 1979 Nature 281:708.
Argues that the spectra of dust-embedded stars lack characteristic organic absorption band.

C. Wickramasinghe, 1977 New Scientist 74:119.
Argues that life originated in dense molecular clouds in interstellar space, and was thence spread by meteorites.

D.T. Wickramasinghe and D.A. Allen, 1986 Nature 323:44.
Report discovery of organic grains in Comet Halley, on the basis of an infrared absorption band.

M.R. Wing and J.L. Bada, 1991 Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 55:2935.
Describe laboratory geo-chromatography experiment in the separation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Suggest that the process took place in aqueous environment on parent body of Ivuna carbonaceous chondrite.

M.R. Wing and J.L. Bada, 1992 Origins of Life 21:375.
Argue that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in carbonaceous chondrites are the result of high temperataure synthesis, and are not derived from pre-existing aliphatic compounds. Suggest that different carbonaceous chondrites have different polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon species because migrating water on the parent body chromatographically separated them.

M.F. Wöhler and M. Hörnes, 1859 Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math-nat. Kl. 34:7.
Examine Kaba fall in Hungary and found carbon compounds which they believed of biological origin.

J.A. Wood and G.E. Morfill, 1988 in J.F. Kerridge and M.S. Matthews, eds., Meteorites and the Early Solar System (University of Arizona):329.
Review of solar nebula models from meteoritics point of view.

I.P. Wright, et al., 1989 Nature 340:220.
Report unexpectedly high concentrations of organic materials on samples of Antarctic Martian SNC meteorite EETA 79001. Although isotope compostion looks terrestrial, argue that something deep in interior of an Antarctic meteorite unlikely to be a contaminant.

I.P. Wright and I. Gilmour, 1990 Nature 345:110.
General-audience article on the dispute between E. Anders and S. Chang's group (Yuen, 1990) about Fischer-Tropsch reaction.

S. Yabushita and I. Hasegawa, 1978 Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 185:549.
Suggest comets originate in interstellar dust clouds and their nuclei contain interstellar grains.

S. Yabushita, et al., 1987 Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 229:45P.
Argue that UV spectra of the Yamato carbonaceous chondrite do not support claim that organic dust grains account for astronomical UV extinction curve.

T. Yamamoto, 1989 in R.L. Newborn, et al., eds., Comets in the Post-Halley Era (Kluwer Ac., Dordrecht) Vol. I:361.
Review of origin theories for cometary grains from the point of view of ice chemistry.

G.U. Yuen and K.A. Kvenvolden, 1973 Nature 246:301.
Report discovery of monocarboxylic acids in Murray and Murchison carbonaceous chondrites. The distribution is non-biological.

G.U. Yuen, et al.,1990 Lunar and Planetary Science 21:1367.
Repeat experiment of Anders, 1970 and find that in general non-equilibrium case no isotope fractionation observed. This weakens argument for Fischer-Topsch reaction in solar nebula as cause of carbonaceous chondrite organic compounds.

K. Zahnle and D. Grinspoon, 1990 Nature 348:157.
Suggest that extraterrestrial amino acids at KT boundary not part of the impacting body (a giant comet), but in dust deposited by it before or after impact -- hence their displacement from the boundary itself.

M. Zhao and J. Bada 1989 Nature 339:463. Report discovery of rare racemic amino acids typical of carbonaceous chondrites near (but a little above) the KT boundary in Denmark. Take this to be evidence of late Cretaceous impact event, although ratio of amino acids to iridium seems extraordinarily large.

M. Zolensky and H.Y. McSween, 1988 in J.F. Kerridge and M.S. Matthews,eds., Meteorites and the Early Solar System (University of Arizona):114.
Review evidence for aqueous processes on meteorite parent bodies.

J.K.F. Zöllner, 1873 Annalen der Physik 148:322.
Argues against Thomson that life could not survive heating on entry to the atmoshere, hence meteorites cannot explain the origin of life.