"6CASCON 4.01.02Copyright 1987-99 Lincoln P. Bloomfield & Allen Moulton.Cascon 4.1 Rev 99A ;gxRmGAXc %M~1-U BN KEW P!%"j!CFD6!$I#O@E2AFV$$ 2 ]d| ]u CW -y@   &   R  + !! "" &&? ''j (( )) ,,9--q..;;::)55Y66@??G88u1100//C7799>>"ABCD*kEJ DI2_CHHMFKGLTJOINSX\`ZQVuOTRW0V[vPUUZ]9^`_XbWaZdLgvh[e\\fij kVlmn+ftpq1rsstpqGrksvlk }p ~  !`!e}!f~!^v8"_w"`x"bz#mY#l#n#o$wO$x$y$z%uQ%{%|%&=&{&&&BG"'**N'''<<'==2(Ycy(i(j(ay/)33)44)22)gY*c{*TY*LQ +KPR+NS++%,|,,-Y-%%--).##{../i/ //0.0Q0p0 0 0 1 S11 12HF222 3X333:4v44445<5m555666b6667J7771888 9#e9!9%:$W:):';&9;(;*;+<H<8<2<;<<H==k=/=1=:+>t>>>?Z??>??7@@R@Ao@B@C@A5AeAAAAEBu7UBt6BBF2CGrCHCKCDMDLvDDD EPHEyEE SFFFGQgGRG G H eH HH4I]IIII*Jh*^Ji+JJj,KZKVK]K[7L9LSL\M_!YMf(Mg)N`"tNUNWNX&OYfO"O^ O4Pb$Pc%Pd&%Qe'iQk-Ql.Qm/)Rn0xRo1Rq3Rw9>Sv8Sx:Sy;TYT@TATz<UQWUPUMUNUO'V.aVV,V-(W6iW3W5W4X0SXNXJXL%YK^YMYY=Z7ZIZJ3[Tv[I[E\Di\F\G<]C]a#]O)^~B^|>^}?_Vm_W_b_a`Uc`d`c`eLa~aYaXa*b Z\bwbb [b \b ]cTCcRc`c9ddnd%ve&w4e"sleiejemMfkfffg ghHgogpglh q\h!rhh3igiii#tj$uMj'xj-~j*{j/%kjk1k2k84l(yrl)zl4'v?v@vB>wCwDwH-xIkxPxQyTByXyYy]Fzzzz:{`{{a{b{v{d-|em|c|f|h#}jw}i}l}k5~ms~n~u~p3qerstGzgÀ$|U}~с#i Q7܄NDžRֆMۇ LՈ|҉%n-p㋧j  [ ֍>|Lxw{<;9S ^g[oNXAEMP"S?WTSvIXCNGIESTD C*HN12345SRegionAfricaEuropeMiddle EastPacific, East Asia & SE AsiaSouth Asia & SW AsiaWestern HemisphereConflict ClassInterstatePrimarily InternalInterventionColonialIssues DisputedEthnicGovernanceIndependenceResourcesStrategicTerritoryLevel of IntensityDispute with No Military AspectConflict with Military PreparationsHostilities with Organized Armed ConflictStatus of ConflictPhase 1: DisputePhase 2: ConflictPhase 3: HostilitiesPhase 4: Post-hostilities ConflictPhase 5: Post-conflict DisputeDispute SettledPrevious or general relations between sidesGreat power or allied involvementGeneral external relationsMilitary-strategicInternational organization (UN, legal, public opinion)Ethnic (refugees, minorities)Economic/resourcesInternal politics of the sidesCommunication and informationActions in disputed area One side's previous support left a legacy of good will between the two sides One side seeks friendly relations with the other Both sides had previously agreed to settle disputes peaceably The two sides are historic enemies Border between sides is in dispute Border between sides is clearly defined Buffer area separates the two sides No buffer area separates the two sides One side is controlled politically by the other One side is not controlled politically by the other One side suspects intentions of the other One side opposes the form of government of the other One side sees other groups succeed against the other One side had been historically dominant in area Historically "non-status quo" side was the only effective force in area Leaders of one side are nostalgic over historical memory of lost empire One side's other preoccupations delay negotiations One side's new leader identifies his predecessors' excesses with the other side Infiltrators of one side undermine political structure of other side One side does not openly support subversion in the other side "Status quo" side had succeeded in dealing with a comparable threat elsewhere The strongest force in "non-status quo" side is linked to a superpower "Non-status quo" side fears that "status quo" side might foment separatism Great powers encourage close relations between the sides Great powers do not encourage close relations between the sides A strong ally of one side had shown willingness to use force in the region A strong ally of one side was unwilling to use its force in the region Historic rivalry motivates great powers to exclude other's forces from the area Great power dispute leads to competition for favor of one side's leadership One side's increasing support from one great power, given its proximity to a second, tends to isolate that side in a showdown One side is receiving material support from an outside power Neither side is receiving outside support Great power concerns lead to stationing foreign troops in one side Increasing ties between one great power and "non-status quo" side lead to its use as a base for former's regional penetration Relations of "non-status quo" side with one great power warm, while cooling with another One superpower's concern with the other's military bases coincides with "non-status quo" side's desires Rivalry between great power allies of "non-status quo" side encourages lack of restraint in that side's leadership One side is focused on conflict with an outside party One side seeks support from outside party Neither side seeks external support External party had given both sides money and material support Primary ally of one side is dependent on the other side and its allies for military and economic support Dispute threatens stability and security of the region Majority in one side favors union with culturally related country Political turmoil within outside party affects its brothers in one side "Status quo" side has military superiority "Non-status quo" side has military superiority Military situation clearly in favor of "status quo" side Military situation in the area clearly in favor of "non-status quo" side Military technology of one side significantly superior One side militarily weak and powerless to resist Military technology of neither side superior A strong ally of one side has military force nearby There are foreign military bases There are no foreign military bases One side discounts independence of other side in light of foreign military bases A military resistance had been organized to fight an invader One side has extensive experience in guerrilla and terrorist tactics "Non-status quo" side acquired large stocks of arms and ammunition in a previous conflict An existing military force opposes "non-status quo" side but is not allied with "status quo" side One side possesses significant nuclear technology Both sides possess significant nuclear technology One side believed to be developing nuclear weapons capability Both sides believed to be developing nuclear weapons capability One side believed to be developing chemical or biological warfare capability Both sides believed to be developing chemical or biological warfare capability World opinion favors "status quo" cause World opinion favors "non-status quo" cause "Status quo" side concerned with world reaction "Non-status quo" side concerned with world reaction One side had signed international agreements prohibiting threat or use of force International organization is active for peaceful settlement No involvement yet of international organization Regional security organization takes strong action Regional security organization's action is weak History of distrust between ethnic groups One ethnic group has greater political/economic power than another Religion of sides differs Areas adjacent to "non-status quo" side contain people who aspired to join it Impending emergence of an independent homogeneous state stimulates aspirations of related people elsewhere Conflict among nomadic groups for scarce resources leads to conflict Both sides have economic and social problems with refugees One side able to use refugees or ethnic forces of the other side as proxies Pressure groups created of refugees and their supporters Sudden influx of population into area Substantial migrant worker population Difference in population density between sides "Status quo" side derives much economic advantage from "non-status quo" side "Non-status quo" side derives much economic advantage from other side Economic policy of one side exploitative Small fraction of population of "status quo" side controls substantial proportion of land or economic resources Small fraction of population on "non-status quo" side controls substantial proportion of land or economic resources "Status quo" side dependent on external economic aid "Non-status quo" side dependent on external economic aid Disparity between sides in level of technological development Domestic economic demand in "status quo" side exceeds available resources Domestic economic demand in "non-status quo" side exceeds available resources "Status quo" side is experiencing depressed economic conditions "Non-status quo" side is experiencing depressed economic conditions Area of conflict contains significant strategic resources Area of conflict has no significant strategic resources Area of conflict is adjacent to or contains an important ground or sea trade route "Status quo" side is dependent on external sources of energy "Non-status quo" side is dependent on external sources of energy "Status quo" side is energy-independent "Non-status quo" side is energy-independent Policy of one side is repressive, providing few legitimate channels of dissent One side had been focusing on other disputes Both sides extremely nationalistic One side very nationalistic, other side much less so Neither side very nationalistic One side, having fought for independence, discounts independence won by negotiations One side's policies suggest orientation toward a neighboring great power's enemies Many on one side owe allegiance to an outside organization The outnumbered side monopolizes the political, economic, and social power and material benefits of the area Leaders of one side preoccupied with consolidating internal hegemony and restoring order "Status quo" side is very cohesive "Non-status quo" side is very cohesive "Non-status quo" side's base of support is split "Status quo" side's base of support is split "Non-status quo" side's main vehicle of action hitherto successful "Non-status quo" side's main vehicle of action hitherto unsuccessful "Status quo" side provides more self-government to "non-status quo" side "Status quo" side denies more self-government to "non-status quo" side "Non-status quo" side seeks to intimidate its potential base of support "Non-status quo" side favors a popular front approach "Non-status quo" side shifts from popular front approach to revolution Moderate leaders of "non-status quo" side fear appearing as weaker champions for change "Status quo" leaders oppose overt action against other side "Non-status quo" leaders oppose overt action against other side "Status quo" side avoids direct provocation Not all leaders of "non-status quo" side are willing to use violent means Unity of "non-status quo" side shaken by a leadership crisis Unity of "status quo" side shaken by a leadership crisis Internal political divisions within one side cause leaders to seek a unifying issue One side claims a "mission" to carry out its policy Style of leader of one side favors dramatic gestures One side considers itself culturally superior Public opinion in one side moves away from support of other side to opposition Sides have open and accessible means of communication Sides do not have open and accessible means of communication Communications between the sides have been disrupted Normal diplomatic channels between the sides have been disrupted Area of dispute is object of competing claims Legal status of disputed area is ambiguous Previous ruler of the disputed area had fixed the border unsuccessfully "Status quo" side controls disputed area "Non-status quo" side controls disputed area The disputed area is strategically important to "status quo" side The disputed area is strategically important to "non-status quo" side Disputed area economically important to both sides Leaders of one side share same political ideology as leaders in disputed area Head of one side has family ties in disputed area Political party in "non-status quo" side has close ties with parties in disputed area "Status quo" side has weak forces in the disputed area "Status quo" side has substantial forces in the disputed area "Status quo" forces in the disputed area are heavily dependent on outside logistic support Armed force in disputed area unable or unwilling to support government One side fears loss of disputed area means loss of status Population in disputed area poorly integrated Ethnic divisions within the disputed area favor "non-status quo" side Ethnic divisions within the disputed area do not favor "non-status quo" side Immigrants to disputed area from one side increase tension Revolt in disputed area means rejection of union with "status quo" side One side follows a policy of repression against political groups in the disputed area One side encourages rebellious groups in the disputed area One side follows a policy of toleration vis-a-vis political groups in the disputed area Opposition in disputed area has eliminated any potential middle-ground The leader of the disputed area proposes a cooling-off delay Nationalist feelings in the disputed area are stimulated by occupation troops Incidents in the disputed area increase in seriousness and number The proximity of the stronger side to the disputed area gives it great influence "Status quo" side's major allies disfavor its policy toward the disputed area A majority of the area residents register their desire to accede to the other side Good information available to the sides about events in the disputed area Little accurate information available to the sides about events in the disputed area Direct negotiations take place between the sides One side agrees to negotiate One side refuses to negotiate Both sides unwilling to negotiate Sides share a common heritage Sides do not share a common heritage The leaders of one side approach the other side's leader for a modus vivendi Representatives of the sides agree to a meeting of leaders Deep ideological split develops between the sides The two sides are not ideologically divided Partial agreements have previously been reached One side underestimates own strength and overestimates that of the other and its ally One side accuses other of using allies to subvert government One side charges the other with fomenting revolt within its territory One side succeeds in influencing the other by non-military means One side fails to influence the other by non-military means Police or military measures taken by one side increase momentum for change Time decreases in which an opportunity can be exploited "Status quo" side takes strong measures against "non-status quo" side and its supporters "Non-status quo" side believes the other side will never yield to its demands Public opinion in one side aroused by action of other side Public opinion in one side is indifferent The US is impartial at this stage The US is not impartial at this stage US policy supports "status quo" side US policy is friendly to "non-status quo" The US urges direct talks to settle the dispute US public opinion is favorable to "non-status quo" side The Soviet Union is impartial at this stage The Soviet Union is not impartial at this stage Great powers are losing interest in the conflict One great power becomes an active mediator A previously-supportive great power drops its support Great powers collaborate on resolution of conflict Regional powers actively pursue peaceful settlement One side discounts the threat of intervention by the other side's ally Major ally of "non-status quo" side strongly prefers a peaceful settlement Major ally of "status quo" side strongly prefers a peaceful settlement No major ally of "non-status quo" side shows a preference for peaceful settlement No major ally of "status quo" side shows a preference for peaceful settlement "Status quo" side's major ally is distracted and gives it relatively low priority Splits within one side are exacerbated by nearby ideological struggles One side feels an influential outside party is neglecting its commitment One side engaged in repressive action against neighbor of the other side Leaders of a third party engaged in a conflict with one side seek help from other side A third party in a position to influence both sides seeks to restrain one side A third party in a position to influence both sides makes no attempt to restrain one side A neutral third party is believed by one side to be an agent for the other side "Non-status quo" side is tied up in another conflict Settlement of another conflict leaves "non-status quo" side free to concentrate on this one The success of similar groups elsewhere offers model for "non-status quo" side The military balance favors "status quo" side The military balance favors "non-status quo" side Military technology of one side is significantly superior to other One side's military strength is growing One side obtains arms and ammunition left over from another conflict One side seeks foreign military aid to redress military balance in the area No foreign military aid is sought One side has limited control over its military forces "Non-status quo" side agrees to place its military forces under neutral command Use of military forces alienates "non-status quo" side One side interprets "routine" troop movements by other side as a threat One side possesses significant nuclear technology Both sides possess significant nuclear technology One side believed to be developing nuclear weapons capability Both sides believed to be developing nuclear weapons capability One side believed to be developing chemical or biological warfare capability Both sides believed to be developing chemical or biological warfare capability The United Nations urges both sides to negotiate a settlement The UN takes other action The UN fails to take action One side had signed international agreements prohibiting threat or use of force Regional organization takes action Regional organization fails to take action A credible third party is available Third party presses for resolution of conflict Mediatory efforts to date are skilfully performed One party faces international denunciation UN sends observer or peacekeeping force to the area Religion of sides differs One side sees its ethnic troubles as inspired by the other side "Status quo" side is split along ethnic and/or religious or cultural lines "Non-status quo" side is split along ethnic and/or religious or cultural lines One ethnic group has more political/economic power than another Clashes increase between one side and a dissident ethnic group Discontent increases within the other side of one side's ethnic brethren One side is committed to unification of ethnic group Many on one side are linked ethnically with neighboring group that achieved the same goal There is a substantial flow of refugees Minority group in "non-status quo" side disfavors changing status quo Sudden influx of population into area Large migrant worker population in area The sides have substantially different population density The economic policy of one side is exploitative Small fraction of population of "status quo" side controls large proportion of land or economic resources Small fraction of population on "non-status quo" side controls large proportion of land or economic resources Disparity between sides in level of technological development Area contains internationally significant strategic resources Area contains no internationally significant strategic resources Area of conflict is adjacent to or contains an important ground or sea trade route "Status quo" side is dependent on external economic aid "Non-status quo" side is dependent on external economic aid Domestic demand in "status quo" side exceeds available resources Domestic demand in "non-status quo" side exceeds available resources "Status quo" side has been experiencing depressed economic conditions "Non-status quo" side has been experiencing depressed economic conditions "Status quo" side is dependent on external source of energy "Status quo" side is energy-independent "Non-status quo" side is dependent on external sources of energy "Non-status quo" side is energy-independent International economic sanctions are invoked International economic sanctions are effective International economic sanctions are not effective "Non-status quo" side believes it can win through political means "Status quo" side believes it can win through political means Neither side believes it can win through political means Leaders of one side believe that limited violence will give weight and urgency to diplomatic efforts One side's policy increases in militancy Government policy vis-a-vis the other side encounters political opposition One side shifts from downgrading the dispute to exaggerating it One side hardens position and will negotiate only if its claim is accepted Opposition parties in one side urge firmer policy toward other side Opposition parties in one side want to achieve their ends more rapidly Opposition parties in one side urge use of force to achieve their goals One side believes that prompt action is needed to forestall more extreme action Authorities of one side are divided on whether to deal with the other side unyieldingly or moderately One side fears that yielding to the other side's demands will lead others to make similar demands Humanitarian motives make action seem urgent Domestic political situation of one side heightens public attention to the conflict Public opinion hardens against the other side "Status quo" side agrees to submit the dispute to a plebiscite "Non-status quo" side agrees to submit the dispute to a plebiscite Some clashes involve persons under neither side's control "Non-status quo" side has the experience and capacity to carry on hostilities "Non-status quo" side lacks the experience and capacity to carry on hostilities Individuals with personal stake in status quo are involved in inflammatory incidents "Non-status quo" side develops a strategy which was successful elsewhere "Status quo" side adopts a strategy which was successful elsewhere One side fears if planned action is reversed those involved will proceed without restraint "Status quo" side concerned over world opinion "Non-status quo" side concerned over world opinion Aid to one side portends its use as a base for political action in the region One side wishes to keep its role covert or indirect One side obtains a proxy force to carry out its policy Members of one side are agitated by political developments in other areas of the region "Status quo" side calculates that its action will be successful "Non-status quo" side calculates that its action will be successful For the first time political groups begin to emerge on one side Opposition parties in "status quo" side urge concession to "non-status quo" side's Focus is shifting from external and/or military to internal, civil concerns Sides have open and accessible means of communication Sides do not have open and accessible means of communication Normal diplomatic channels between the two sides disrupted "Status quo" side controls disputed area "Non-status quo" side controls disputed area The economic value to both sides of disputed area increases The economic value to one side of disputed area increases The disputed area does not have important economic value "Status quo" side's strategic interest in disputed area increases "Non-status quo" side's strategic interest in disputed area increases "Status quo" side has military superiority in disputed area "Non-status quo" side has military superiority in disputed area One side increases its capability to deploy military forces in disputed area One side sends troops to disputed area Both sides strengthen military forces in disputed area "Status quo" side reinforces its garrison in disputed area There is a weak countervailing military force near disputed area One or both build border posts in territory claimed by the other One or both sides establish military posts in territory claimed by the other One side to the dispute reinforces its border garrisons Both sides to the dispute reinforce their border garrisons Minor incidents occur along the border between the two sides The major allies of each side agree that disputed area is in the sphere of influence of one of them Allies disagree that disputed area is in one side's sphere of influence Strategic concerns require avoiding events in the disputed area that would disturb great power relationships The rights of minority groups in disputed area are guaranteed The rights of minority groups in disputed area are not guaranteed In disputed area popular sentiment overwhelmingly favors change A majority of the disputed area residents register their desire to accede to the other side One side follows a policy of toleration vis-a-vis political groups in disputed area One side follows a policy of repression against political groups in disputed area One side uses its military presence in disputed area to pursue long-held ideological, political, economic, and strategic goals One side engages in fomenting and encouraging rebellious groups in the area The proximity of one side to disputed area and its greater power give it great influence Ties of one side's leader's to disputed area make action seem urgent One side refuses to intervene in disputed area unless leader in that area accedes to its demands Incidents in disputed area increase in seriousness and number Little accurate information available to the sides about situation in disputed area Accurate information available to the sides about situation in disputed area Both sides appear to have limited objectives One or both sides do not appear to have limited objectives One or both sides try to penetrate deeply into the other's territory Neither side attempts to penetrate deeply into the other's territory Leader of one side desires to avoid wider war with other side "Non-status quo" side succeeds in establishing a rival government to "status quo" side "Non-status quo" side fails to establish a rival government to "status quo" side "Non-status quo" side achieves its primary goals "Non-status quo" side has not achieved its primary goals "Non-status quo" side is willing to discuss ending hostilities Both sides are willing to negotiate a settlement Sides appear unwilling to negotiate a settlement The sides are negotiating Sides share much common heritage Partial agreements have been reached Leader of one side announces a cease fire Leader of one side calls for a summit meeting "Status quo" side makes some concessions Leader of one side heeds warning that harsh measures will result in action by the other side "Status quo" side removes leader of other side who could have restraining influence "Status quo" side rallies support among members of the other side One side's leaders assure other side that regular forces will not be used to overthrow them Strong superpower diplomatic support to "status quo" side Strong superpower diplomatic support to "non-status quo" side A superpower appears to be neutral A superpower fears growth of conflict into a wider war The prestige of a superpower is committed to settlement Major powers supply arms and equipment to "status quo" side to redress imbalance Major powers supply arms and equipment to "non-status quo" side to redress imbalance Arrival of arms in one side raises the prospect of a wider war Great power interest in the area increases A great power's diplomatic support encourages one side to continue the struggle Great power gives "status quo" side substantial economic aid Great power gives "non-status quo" side substantial economic aid Great power supporter of "status quo" side contemplates intervention Great power supporter of "non-status quo" side contemplates intervention A great power urges one side to avoid provoking a full-scale war A great power indicates interest in terminating hostilities and negotiating a settlement Great powers urge cease fire and avoidance of intensification Great powers/superpowers are losing interest in the conflict One great power/superpower becomes active mediator A previously supportive great power/superpower drops out Great powers/superpowers collaborate to resolve conflict Regional powers want a peaceful settlement Great power supporter of "non-status quo" side refuses to assure aid Great power supporter of "status quo" side refuses to assure aid One side receives aid from a supporter Supporter of one side threatens unilateral intervention Use of force by one side alienates potential allies States in the region give material support to "non-status quo" side States in the region give material support to "status quo" side After major ally of one side withdrew, another ally was acquired After major ally of one side withdrew, another ally was not available "Non-status quo" side fearful of potential ally's intentions Countries on which "non-status quo" side is dependent are unable or unwilling to give further support Countries on which "status quo" side is dependent are unable or unwilling to give further support Both sides dependent for aid on outside party pressing for an end to hostilities Despite one side's military success, its ally is unwilling to impose solution Actions of country supporting one side confirm its threat to intervene "Status quo" side has the military advantage "Non-status quo" side has the military advantage Military balance remains heavily in favor of one side Military technology of one side significantly superior Militarily the hostilities are inconclusive One side has overwhelming military and logistical preponderance for the terrain One side has very weak military forces The military strength of one side increases "Status quo" side uses superior military power to win military victory One side is ill-informed on size of forces needed to execute its avowed policy Initial hostilities fail to delay change in status quo "Status quo" side's forces are ineffective and unable to stop or deflect attack of "non-status quo" side Only a small proportion of each side's forces are engaged A large proportion of each side's forces are engaged "Non-status quo" side uses superior military power to win military victory The manner in which fighting breaks out suggests that hostilities are largely accidental Hostilities having broken out almost accidentally, neither side can follow up One side resorts to guerrilla warfare The terrain is unsuitable for guerrilla warfare "Non-status quo" side has few, primitive arms, and weak training and organization Armed forces of supporters of both sides become involved Armed forces of supporters of both sides do not become involved Major ally of one side responds to attacks with large reinforcements Military action by one side leads to combat with allies of the other side Larger strategic concerns constrain pressure from states influential with "status quo" side One side's ally's military mission has expanded from logistic support to advice on military operations Prolonged or intensified hostilities may trigger a mutual security agreement to which one side belongs Outside parties halt military aid to both sides One side unable to cut off arms supply to other side External pressures for termination develop One side's move against the other side's supply lines risks retaliation Foreign officers in one side's armed forces threaten withdrawal if that side continues military activities Neither side can obtain a decisive military victory at an acceptable level of commitment and risk Rapid growth of one side's armed forces sacrifices quality of training Force is not used for military victory, but to strengthen diplomacy by threatening a wider war Commander of one side's army advises against more military activity One side failed to move beyond terrorism and isolated guerrilla activity Military and para-military units act on their own initiative New military effectiveness on one side discourages other side from belief in military victory Raids by one side into other's territory inflict no military damage One side must commit more troops than anticipated One side feels that a cease fire in place would leave the other's troops too close Reasons for initial intervention by one side remain, but forces committed are inadequate The strategic interests of the side that intervened in hostilities retain importance Military tactics of "status quo" side restrict scale and scope of hostilities One side possesses significant nuclear technology Both sides possess significant nuclear technology One side believed to be developing nuclear weapons capability Both sides believed to be developing nuclear weapons capability The UN begins to assert itself strongly The UN does not assert itself strongly The UN presses for an immediate cease fire The adversaries agree to a UN cease fire resolution "Non-status quo" side is anxious to see the conflict in the UN "Status quo" side is anxious to see the conflict in the UN The UN actively seeks a political formula to end the hostilities The UN Secretary General urges restraint on both sides UN Security Council membership favors end to hostilities and negotiated settlement UN Security Council adopts a resolution calling for a ceasefire A great power vetoes UN Security Council resolution UN General Assembly is convened under the Uniting for Peace resolution UN General Assembly declines to place question on its agenda UN General Assembly favors end to hostilities UN General Assembly discusses the conflict but takes no action The UN creates a body to make an on-the-spot report and facilitate negotiations A UN body condemns those aiding "non-status quo" A UN body condemns those aiding "status quo" UN agrees to send a peacekeeping force to the area Plans for a UN force are elaborated and contingents committed UN force's mandate supports objectives of "non-status quo" side UN force's mandate supports objectives of "status quo" side Regional organization to which sides belong offers to mediate One side withdraws from international organization Ethnic rivalries exist in "status quo" side Ethnic rivalries exist in "non-status quo" side Refugees from one side return to carry out raids Violence occurs between ethnic groups within country supporting one side Strife between ethnic groups in one side raise doubt about that side's viability "Status quo" side faces economic problems as a result of hostilities "Non-status quo" side faces economic problems as a result of hostilities The costs of hostilities for both sides are becoming burdensome in terms of other goals Great power ally of "status quo" side threatens to cut economic aid Great power ally of "non-status quo" side threatens to cut economic aid Great powers threaten to withdraw economic aid from both sides unless cease fire established One side's advances threaten important resource on other side "Non-status quo" side's military and territorial objectives appear limited "Non-status quo" side's military and territorial objectives do not appear to be limited Opposition in one side increases as violence escalates Domestic public opinion comes to favor "status quo" side Domestic public opinion comes to favor "non-status quo" side Public opinion in one side rallies against the other side Heavy domestic pressure is generated in one side to cease hostilities Public opinion in "status quo" side favors a negotiated settlement Internal unrest likely to be triggered by continued hostilities Internal unrest unlikely to be triggered by continued hostilities "Status quo" side counters violence by arrests and strong reprisals "Non-status quo" side wins political concessions At times extremist political groups in both sides gain control over policy "Non-status quo" side denies any connection with the hostilities "Non-status quo" side creates a rival government One side dramatizes its position by an international incident One side feels responsible for the fate of its proxy forces Some military officers on one side believe a military solution is possible Opposition within "status quo" side reaches high into the military One side's prime role in the military action is widely assumed despite attempts to keep it covert Splits occur in the leadership of one side Splits within one side become open rifts Unity of one side is reinforced as members take action against suspected traitors A coalition is emerging within one side in opposition to party in power One side is ideologically committed to prolonging the fight Ideological split exists among "non-status quo" side's supporters Ideological split exists among "status quo" side's supporters One side seeks to isolate the other side from its base of support Prolongation of hostilities erodes resources of one side One side is over-confident in seeking military solution "Non-status quo" side resorts to guerrilla war Initial objective of one side conceived as being limited and for humanitarian reasons "Non-status quo" side's hope for political gains is not fulfilled "Non-status quo" side not prepared to act independently Sides have open and accessible means of communication Sides do not have open and accessible means of communication Some military officers of both sides, as citizens of a third party, provide communication channel between opposing forces Communications are inadequate between one side's political leader and its military forces in the field "Status quo" side lacks anticipated support in disputed area "Non-status quo" side lacks anticipated support in disputed area "Status quo" side misinterprets nature of events in disputed area Supporters of "status quo" side in disputed area begin to turn against it Both sides worry about effects of military activity on hostile ethnic groups in disputed area UN focuses world attention on developments in disputed area Both sides agree to let the UN ascertain the wishes of population in disputed area International organization body is slow in reaching disputed area Moderating third-party forces in disputed area begin to phase out Troops of interested parties present in disputed area form a peacekeeping force One side warns that any offensive action in disputed area will result in wider war Dangers of all-out war increase when hostilities spill out of disputed area Geography of disputed area makes it difficult to prevent one side from reinforcing Practical geographical limits in disputed area make extended operations difficult One side has a sanctuary in terrain difficult for other to reach Geographic isolation of disputed area keeps "non-status quo" side activity at relatively low level Nature/location of "non-status quo" side's attack weakens its claim to be supporting groups in disputed area Each side labels other the aggressor and sees its own actions as defensive Important interests of one side in disputed area threatened by other side's actions There is united opposition to "non-status quo" side's action One side's administration near disputed area is unable to prevent military activity One side claims proof of the other's complicity in military activity in disputed area Raids by one side into disputed area do not cause significant damage or provoke local unrest Forces of one side sufficient to control raiding groups in disputed areaUpCascon DatabaseACWMIT92NX*8-\-8]-/0/G00 1^Ŭ8(4V0D36H܎r'aKk;F}{W~?}ks׿Go2k#y+{}k=~x}mu>T1@@($RT(D6H܆Մr#]S Angola Civil War 1974-Angolan governmentUNITAADYMIT92N *+j+Y(, }@L#w]2P LpL*&1;. < J<w}{y~ͯY7;Kӿ{߂s?U@L"GP D0@ "0(Є T F @Aden (South Yemen) 1963-67United KingdomRival nationalist groupsAFGMIT92NH. -K-x-Y/j -fh`Ӂ83ƯTRA%`֎?Ń/'T@ZTE3RunH}[_t~{wo]}o7|4߾{^wD]*8h AX,@$ Ž7xDA$'T@HPD43RQp.HAfghanistan 1979-88Soviets-Afghan CommunistsAfghan rebelsAIWMIT92Nz*M&,R&,0"x Ɏ_\2^ u:QyX uݿ_}N}{|?w~׀8H@0F i % Arab-Israeli War 1967IsraelUAR (Egypt-Syria)ALGMIT92N0)L)*m,*a+`c+'n` p`0I6Vpd<M {g[=y߯ٞ7knωS_ܽ!` bPNQ.B E@Angolan Independence 1961-74PortugalIndigenous rebel groupsBAHMIT92N$ &dK,,M:Cera%H-D@ "}gv:<}Sa @ P" Bahrain 1970United Kingdom (Bahrain)IranBANMIT92Nd),v,,,>6-=rѭlo#xռ i%h7`oKFg?W QRW@{!tD/4۟_5?W_f[Wz4p~_rAh !xBИ@(($h0 |-MhKFG:C QRW0@!4DNBangladesh 1971PakistanBangladeshBELMIT92N -=)+/C^5}ʨ]}O>?zMD‡5׺S%x@ oKψR  -[7 N7} 0w-J~`>Belize-Guatemala 1948-1991Belize governmentGuatemalan governmentBOLMIT92N@  )D+3%,',M,JP*@`+NZ 1Db6AqB60J$ ?/Kkg=ާnߨH9;wٝG ߯g{qYsOܷk?@e߹{ٙ@(@ +0H !D`@pB"DH$ TBolivia 1967BoliviaCuban-led insurgentsBOPMIT92NH *+/;+3;+QdB@"HD(j8Fnq  6@D  0` 0& (Yw{~^wݷOܵ?u_`@ @@8@ HD  Bay of Pigs 1961CubaUSABURMIT92N +9+++,,,4,`[/(\//WBQB0=F8jq Pl #2@@+I )nv?ZÕVz_U#V_?_-NayvuAB%F0j! ! 1!"@+ Burundi 1965-Government (Tutsi dominated)HutusCAMMIT92NH &-4G./qf E9#0 jD$[{o@QSӽ`_{+?v<.~CG7KZ߽unZ 8! jDZCHJSCambodia 1979-Heng Samrin/VietnameseKhmer Rouge/Sihanouk/SereiCARMIT92N)/--{..Cq22?C7߻k"kc/lnǁŀ(gs_O4Cr?D_OÀ~WX=P45{\vsvpB 0<@7XI "+B,f$v@Chile-Argentina (Beagle Channel) 1977-85ChileArgentinaCHAMIT92Np\-x- .. /(\/D0ZypNM> Wzɛ^D&+ L.Ţx5J! K]0m8@m?4cӞ8o}xϾryX>?~?yzn 7 AP, N b2(0AP@@Ca@Congo (Katanga) 1960-63Congo (Zaire)Katanga ProvinceCUBMIT92N@ (6)z**P@d!DD1 7p!0HbAPIK!J?yoco}c߷knը_ٳe_?׻osg}߷o͸?{o[@DaDB H@A@ B Cuba 1952-59Batista GovernmentCastro oppositionCYCMIT91R(++b++K(,(,+8-:-! q@2'1) ` ( 1 h0lE";\#HG1o%O_8$sԊ~߳w;@5p@ @!) 10d@"# @!LB:"Cyprus (communal)1963-Turkish CypriotsGreek CypriotsCYEMIT92N'))P*C*=Y@DDm@1#`Xx6LӀL O !P0> EƁ 9Y??qOK}cߟﳵko^첧S9]w&?߳o{O}ZR磭oߙ?Sq۫(@@D HDA@ @ L "@1Cyprus (enosis) 1954-59United KingdomCyprusCZEMIT92N  ;@X//Ĩ/ŶP a a PzH00 (/}]o`=9ǫf˯ToX@A Pz@00`Czechoslovak revolution 1989-90Czechoslovakian GovernmentVarious opposition groupsDOMMIT92N@*Pe+M+x+++z0@@0` k D)`4@`0 QNQ;1J@?o{}os߷o]F_e\^ w?Te{}S߷>o߽Q߼ݽϠ0`"Dx`@ @B1B"Dominican Republic 1965-66Military juntaBosch and PRDDRHMIT92N$K+\+M+>4@*'(P 1-dQ , @,*̀0WC߷ڽzW/U?v/=`~0@(r'P !( ,@ Dominican Republic-Haiti 1963HaitiDominican RepublicELSMIT92NH&@, . /I/M\ %`j w7Nd=xͶ?c~~XDŽA`.TQ",fH֔TxB)0JBf$y%`Ethiopia-Eritrea 1974-93EthiopiaEritreaEUSMIT92N+h,p\-l@ 0CB4$A@m MyO<_{߯?WomIsݾߖ:?'@" "$@HP MEcuador-USA 1963-75USAEcuadorFAMMIT92Nn.ro.Fp.C mz84:*:@c.p /js,BYV00wQڢe =|߮Ww~-[@=n:/?hjBX $ @-\*0A# D.P$  bGhana-Upper Volta 1964-66Upper VoltaGhanaGYVMIT92N%`+,,-&}bH6'{XVOkq(a.xa~0<{_}=/]/O_i;9qUw rcTB@h"IR`.`$@A PP0Guyana-Venezuela 1970GuyanaVenezuelaICBMIT92N&! (***,d+e+73$"@yBQ0() HA}0JBn1XA#!)?oK}ݜ߷ﳿo$B=Նm]w߾Y~m/Wo:k}ٚz[߷ﳽo߽R]>ݽ 0m $EH@  @@FA # India-China border 1954-62IndiaChinaIMCMIT92N'%{c++ ++;RUL6z B cK  @P@QDL B `C`-0A?o[}\]߿ݷ{/߼__ݽ /Ջ7o;}_}o?o~ټn@@ @Q@AP@DL H@`)A`Indonesia-Malayasia 1963-65MalaysiaIndonesiaINPMIT92N(d)+j+*A )bb; ހo_Om(Vl|A[W7u4s׭ R{lg {_/zνf=5/|u?_|WhzBB 1JL!@J(H 1a-India-Pakistan 1965-IndiaPakistanIRIMIT92N)A($ .P#.t[//M* y=gJM9AuE*Soě5;"Bvq=D~Gs $e#=w}z:wa/:qaޝg+םwokÿ]~:[OpgJ@9ŏeqf"A (n0@tA!qe #Iran-Iraq 1980-1990IranIraqIRKMIT92N*A(*<+++L,0V;@b@ K( !7@9MK< b D!Jl?oo;}Tk3oܽWYo?zo{}n2-oܩ_Ws6"  ! 0@1HI b BHIraq (Kurds) 1958-63IraqKurdsIWIMIT92N0+ ,`S((x(()7>)B)i)k]1R`h H8T@0I+|   l @P!0/"=IdPYZ) ?ok}m߷{oތ}L[_/x_N{k|ݷ;pշ/o߉=wy[@(`@@ "U?op}W瓿Wo߹_ռw`@P )  @E% 0 P@QP*Lebanon 1957-58GovernmentUnited National FrontMAEMIT92N@1%)>)@)d)/H76@ `H *"n@ D@7Ј EB b?Cc}Ϸ{oͽH9wռ{?ok}_Ϸﳟo߽ݽo6@ `H n@ @3E`B bMalayan Emergency 1948-60GovernmentMalayan Communist PartyMEWMIT92N2G,>-R- f$2A gh]ψ_^= yx`C"`@߽t︻];}W[L"tOأ}gK]>w1z7D  d@ \L4`G PY C!Middle East War 1973IsraelArab StatesMOMMIT92N$3&P*9++,;B29.E;Ckq*,,Lo] $0^Ou"-O}^9W^?ۆ{qpOP8 9`a,q @fPP) ZMorocco-Mauritania 1957-70MauritaniaMoroccoMOSMIT92N 4lw**`-eQ@1@8Qg@`%  7j{ `O!0 m}k4YWt_߷Ҁom?M!0WVsMdlzv#os˧{yY w@@0A$@@!$jPBq `@0 Morocco-Spain 1956-75SpainMoroccoMOZMIT92NH5;p\-!,.P/F0Ӯf 1d$@,l@9Z86z/Ā ET @{\ my_1?c9OSӶ/NfGxw+w0bz1d$,L@)ta"X A @As\ Mozambique Civil War 1975-94Mozambique Frelimo governmentRenamo oppositionMUSMIT92NT6<0O* *$**,9Qyp5iL(մ0#7 \F3τ6Q[h %D_Lw~?|7_f`_a  HK̰_' PDE`|  $DMuscat and Oman 1957-70Sultanate of Oman (Muscat and Oman)Imamate of OmanNAMMIT92N7;)#,p\-P//U&`f(7UHd7h֒DVzJYC%iFan}yW_>O~ٿHuw{wOoq?f?Qڟ_z P&D7Edy'hDRJC%`)`VNamibian Independence 1947-90Namibian regime/South AfricaUNITA, Angola, CubaNCAMIT92N 8&(t. 5P%@ bcP ,h T~@.O>ӿ_o_|s_׽7[0$@ @a & (@ThA INew Caledonia 1984-French GovernmentKanak SeparatistsNCRMIT92N@9(=) (*O*O*v*ra*``/!\h"*4 k0|=W<tu h< ..o?Wc:t_{UM׽y~?{ۿ߯w_ra*@P`/ @h"*\(JK\=Up4T( P*.Nicaragua-Costa Rica 1955-56Costa RicaNicaraguaNIBMIT92N:!D+&,&,,,jq ?hw55*m,""$ċ-ij8~4`TVW *mR \ 4?:_~CQm CZϟo{]ެҀ_`'5(e("(  $@D80@!DRW *LR!T Nigeria (Biafra) 1967-70NigeriaEastern region (Biafra)NICMIT92NH;(p$.K. o. /8P+Mx/xRQvvyc63t /^GZy0G4SRΝw%ݽ[[>___1ߩWdnrD݁҇ϧW~^8P4(`x xRQ vv8 tt &~iZP{p00B0 R8@"@ sNicaragua 1980-90Sandinista governmentContras/U.S.NIHMIT92N<$#*G*K*+1' % @ {51CD9,Ź!A()?)4e)}Ju_ ALIQ v$Tg ḾXx qvv _da4/o{u?Nc=`ۗ'Xeo^uBu ALAP 0$@' 1 ātmxpvR_@`HD!,Palestine 1947-49Arab StatesPalestinian Jews (Israel)PANMIT92N? `+-+S+-& $%@$H> >o3$BH4oiS(G߿{}<G+KnZmOτ9|$Wvا$$H0 @:o"€І@ A DPanama 1964USAPanamaPHHMIT92N@@&~&T((**F |6Mk09TO){`\ˤ@% DDhx(Snk ~=ߵﳟoߩXyݽ*Sܣ {n3{==o?_ߥgo9]p 2E)  P#@@@ D "@ Philippines (Huks) 1946-54GovernmentHuk insurgentsQUMMIT92NLA')+*H* Y@@0(xXb!jx"`}߷ﳿo\,@ Yy߷볟tk^_ݽ9 (8H b@`Quemoy-Matsu 1954-58Nationalist ChinaPeoples Republic of ChinaSEKMIT92NB.+<+$+Q+\$ 8H(@se M$0A 0Nʃ34niI!U$~?g }\쳿{j[QCY;ӈg9g=@ݧ{j{߹޷S)=ݿY߳~ 0@CD`L `@O0@B D @ @! Somalia-Ethiopia-Kenya 1960-64Ethiopia-KenyaSomaliaSINMIT92NC 0O*Ez*z*'Vv (x2l N\g45`P4YX^   ߤﱿoש?ټ{?ߴog_ݭ~V P NT!0$j Sinai 1956EgyptIsraelSOIMIT92N\DA(((O(Z(_("@TP Ph Q c8 n !"z Bœdv"~?Yo[}??ߥ糽oO۳ݽ;^}?U'ozu=S7Y;p߷n=g]iOw~Y>@@P Ab8 Ą  "z B`Soviet-Iran 1945-46IranSoviet UnionSPBMIT92NE&p'! N,d0)  e ](W_Sq5~zlI(_4Mo~F<,5u<~v7~%A(Qa< x8ZlXȁ ASpain-Basque 1968-Spanish governmentBasque separatistsSPIMIT92NF%(5-@k0:5 %JX@< JH8"1 oqzl? 7ߵ YSq~cqϡeoDpl{dJX, JH  oaxSpratly Islands 1974-Vietnam et al.ChinaSRIMIT92NG;@v*!,.3/5/D/`/@ @ `tu.i.@o[d3&?pF4JP5!t4M? oOyO?]]~ͳ^@@EF2P@!# @@HB0: Syria-Turkey 1956-57SyriaTurkeyTASMIT92NKm.3/nbR5fav~awkڝX9཮v/ߑ5%bavnATaba Strip 1982-89IsraelEgyptTRIMIT92N L(M* ,*!,*j=9b<28Qc|dt9 }wW|a{O,"0 0Q  $D8} b Trieste 1945-54ItalyYugoslaviaULSMIT92NM 3 F%K,E00з0p9:Ġj3)ѻ+X0" 3ԛop`T0gt6H8$n}?_{Ekԟ{ﰫۇvf>{o}WLۿ?XSd|ƭ1@ B)< @< " ԓ$d20M@0 @ 8 0b4 9Ulster 1968-Protestant majority and UK governmentCatholic minorityUSMMIT92NN)+!~+ %hdCiQ>.ܜ%("US-Mexico Border 1895-1963United StatesMexicoVENMIT92N@O**h+`+#, @ POB c0L3@!BA!6 @P !`?g{=ߧoߩ?@8]y]Uf:{sutf߉?Y< D @ # "@!B@H ($ @@A@ Venezuela 1960-63GovernmentTerrorist groupsWESMIT92NP#P-h`-`-/Ӑ uD=h3o(Tҕl8$B6pdao&W4uŠYow^=?cHX|x93[~70plw|OŹW^8o 7E3,# $p axCU0FU€Western Sahara 1973-Spain/MoroccoPolisario/SADRWIRMIT92NQi)*(=+c++ٜe @f@A,b@dLQ p$A R$0Nā)| R 9 eoBMX)Y`?oi+}/3oԬtCXٮ}?uo{{5p'˳?g߹]緳]ٝ~倯@@`@@L R $ %@#`PWest Irian 1962-63NetherlandsIndonesiaYEMMIT92NHRa+d+d++,ALGFrance's 1947 Algerian statute stifled Muslim hopes for greater political participation. French preoccupation elsewhere left control with local Europeans who neglected the 80% rural population.A secret group, CRUA, decided on a military insurrection before reconciling the goals of all nationalist factions.Some 70 acts of violence were perpetrated by 30 armed bands. A Front for National Liberation (FLN), formed to seek aid in building an Army of National Liberation (ALN), eventually gained support of most nationalists except a rival MNA faction. Early ALN success was reversed after February 1956 by French action creating electrified border barriers, troop build-ups, a "grid" strategy, and social reforms. Later actions, such as kidnapping FLN leaders, invading Suez [see SUE], and bombing a Tunisian village, lost France support in the UN and elsewhere during a prolonged period of governmental instability. General Charles de Gaulle's election in mid-1958 and offer of self-determination prompted the "Ultras" uprising and a "General's Revolt" by the Secret Army Organization (OAS) in Algeria in April 1961.A cease-fire was agreed with the FLN at Evian. On July 3, referenda in France and Algeria approved the Evian accords giving Algeria independence and France access to Saharan resources.Algerian independence was proclaimed by France.#LmdALMMorocco is the core of a once-great Maghrib Empire. At independence in 1956, borders with Spain, Mauretania and Algeria remained uncertain. Irredentist pressures prompted Mohammed V to lay claim in February 1958 to vast Saharan regions including the Tindouf and Colomb-Bechar regions of Algeria.Once independent in 1962, Algeria placed troops in Tindouf where pro-Morocco sentiment led to incidents across the border. Moroccan anti-Algerian feeling was fed by Algerian slighting of prior aid, Algiers' support of Egypt in pan-Arab affairs and the discovery of manganese in Colomb-Bechar. Mauretania's acceptance as an OAU founding member left Algeria the main target of Hassan II, who was coming under increasing domestic pressure to take a hard line. At Oujda on October 5 1963 the rival Foreign Ministers agreed to a heads of state meeting and a boundary commission.Before either body met, Algerian troops captured two outposts, Morocco mobilized, and troops were committed in three areas. Algeria received Soviet and Egyptian aid. Mediation attempts by Ethiopia, Tunisia, the UNSYG and the Arab League failed. On an initiative by Mali, agreement was reached at Bamak on a November 2 cease-fire and an OAU Council of Ministers meeting.An OAU-sponsored Committee obtained agreement to end the conflict, but the border issue remained unresolved.On January 15 1969 the Presidents of Algeria and Morocco signed a 20-year treaty of cooperation. A joint commission agreed on the boundary on May 27 1970. The Tindouf would remain Algerian with joint exploitation of the area's iron ore resources.The agreement was completed in June 1972 at an OAU summit in Rabat.# ANGThe indigenous African population far outnumbered the colonial elite but was excluded from the electorate and subjected both to Christian proselytizing and repressive labor policy.Anti-colonial sentiment spreading throughout Africa was reflected in mounting opposition in Angola (and Portugal) to Portuguese dictator Antonio de Oliveira Salazar. The Portuguese expanded their military presence as their policies toward their African colonies attracted international attention and UN disapproval. The first of three competing indigenous nationalist forces, the MPLA (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola), mobilized in 1956 under Dr. Antonio Agostinho Neto.Riots occurred in the capital, Luanda, followed by a series of violent upheavals in which two other exile groups took part: the FNLA (Front for the Liberation of Angola) under Holden Roberto, and UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola) under Dr. Jonas Savimbi. The dissidents, hampered by competition between them, were no match for an efficient and ruthless regime. The UN proved powerless, given the unwillingness of Portugal's NATO allies --the US and the UK -- to bring pressure. Some major legal and social reforms accompanied the repression.Sporadic clashes continued to occur between supporters of the three exile groups. A military coup in Portugal in April 1974 led to dissolution of the empire. Fighting between rival nationalist groups resulted in Portugal granting independence to the Angolan people rather than any organization.The MPLA declared itself the government of Angola. [see ACW]#BAHThe UK decision to withdraw from the Persian Gulf by the end of 1971, and thus remove its protection of Bahrain (traditional since 1820), revived a continuing Iranian claim based on Persian rule from the early 17th century until 1783 when the current ruling dynasty was established. On March 28 1970 the UNSYG announced receipt of letters from Iran and the UK requesting that he designate a personal representative Vittorio Winspeare-Giucciardi to ascertain the wishes of the people. On May 11 1970 the UNSC endorsed Winspeare's conclusion that an overwhelming majority wished recognition of Bahrain's identity as a fully independent and sovereign state free to decide its own relations with other states.In the UNSC Iran announced the dispute ended as both parties accepted the Winspeare Report.#uABAN[See INP.] East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) became part of Pakistan at independence in 1947. Resentful of West Pakistan's domination, the separatist Awami League formed in 1949. A United Front coalition of 5 discordant parties (including the Awami League) defeated the ruling West Pakistani Muslim League in 1954. Economic stagnation in East Pakistan accentuated cultural and linguistic rifts. In 1966 Awami leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman sought increased autonomy. His arrest helped coalesce Bengali opinion when Pakistani President Ayub Khan was forced out in 1969. Ayub's successor Yahya Khan called for elections.The Awami League swept East Pakistan, and won a bare majority in the national assembly as well. The West Pakistan leadership was unwilling to accept Mujib as Prime Minister and the assembly never met. Martial law was declared March 1971. Mujib ordered a general strike. Yahya responded with West Pakistan troops. Civil disturbances increased in violence. Mujib was arrested again. On March 26 1971 the Awami League declared independence, and formed a government in exile in India.Civil war ensued, with about a million Bengalis killed. Millions of refugees poured into India. India declared war on Pakistan on December 3.The defeat of Pakistan permitted the creation of Bangladesh.Mujib was freed, and took office. The United Front coalition dissolved and resultant rifts led to a series of coups and military rule.Pakistan formally recognized Bangladesh's independence.#BELIn 1788 Spain granted Great Britain permission to settle the area today known as Belize while retaining formal sovereignty. Britain assumed control when the Spanish Empire was dismantled in 1816, and in 1859 signed a treaty with Guatemala fixing the borders. Renamed British Honduras, the area became a Crown colony in 1862. Guatemala, in 1933, registered a claim that Britain had reneged on a 1859 treaty provision, thereby nullifying it. Guatemala claimed sovereignty as the legal heir to the Spanish empire in the region. British Honduras voted to remain under British protection with a greater degree of autonomy. In 1948 Guatemala closed its borders with British Honduras. Britain sent 3 warships to the area and tensions eased.Guatemala severed diplomatic relations with Britain. In 1964 Britain granted British Honduras self-government but continued its military presence. The country was renamed Belize in 1976. Britain had taken the case to the UN and in 1980 the UN General Assembly adopted the Belizean independence resolution by 125-1 (Guatemala). The Assembly demanded that Guatemala enter negotiations with Britain and Belize. However a proposed agreement between the three parties caused widespread local unrest, and further negotiations broke down. Britain and Belize agreed on a constitution and independence was granted in September 1981. Guatemala refused to accept it.Following Belize's admission as a full member of the OAS in January 1991 and recognition by Honduras in February, Guatemala in September officially recognized Belize's sovereignty and independence. In return Guatemala was granted the use of Belizean ports and control over a 3-mile sea corridor permitting access to the port of Puerto Barrios.#IoBOLGeographic, demographic and historical forces had impeded exploitation of Bolivia's natural wealth. In 1952 nationalist reformers seized power, but lost support as economic problems and corruption persisted. The popular Vice President, General Rene Barrientos Ortuno, took control in 1964 and in 1966 was elected President. Opposition continued particularly from the tin miners.Cuban leader Fidel Castro reportedly considered setting up a base for revolution in the Southern Cone of Latin America. Revolution promoter Che Guevara chose Bolivia and took command. Despite friction between local pro-Soviet and pro-Chinese factions, advance agents collected supplies. Guevara arrived in November and began training Cuban and Bolivian recruits despite adverse conditions, including peasant disinterest.A successful guerrilla ambush began five months of clashes. In June-July, Army occupation of some mines triggered a miners' strike and widespread urban protests. Fearing to unite miners and guerrillas, Barrientos declared a state of siege. By July 10 the crisis eased and thereafter the guerrillas, lacking popular and even local Communist Party support, and facing special army units trained by US Special Forces, rapidly became decimated. Guevara, whose presence was not officially confirmed until July, was captured and executed on October 9.The Cuban-inspired insurgency was suppressed.The July 1968 publication of Che's diary, leaked to Cuba by the Bolivian Interior Minister, caused a major confrontation between rival military leaders. Martial law was declared. Tension eased in October and a new, largely civilian cabinet was named.#(BOPAfter Fidel Castro's assumption of power in Cuba, US relations deteriorated. Resentment of US economic pressure, bombing raids by exiled followers of former Cuban President Fulgencio Batista from Florida, and fear of US invasion were matched by US outrage at property expropriations and political executions, plus anger at Castro's pro-Soviet Communist leanings.CIA arming and training of exiles, approved by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, was begun in contact with opposition groups within Cuba. Failure to consolidate indigenous guerrilla groups led to an expanded invasion force. Official relations worsened as Soviet arms arrived in Cuba. Washington complained to the OAS, Castro denounced the US to the UNGA, the US imposed an export embargo, and in January 196l broke relations. With President John F. Kennedy's approval, subject to the non-use of US forces, the invaders left their Guatemalan training camp on April 14.Exile pilots bombed Cuban planes on the ground but failed to destroy Cuban air power. Exile forces landed on April 17 but Cuban planes prevented supply ships from landing. US naval forces and aircraft remained offshore and inactive. The invasion force was captured when its supplies were exhausted and President Kennedy refused to commit US forces.Diplomatic efforts ultimately led to the prisoners' release. The USSR announced an agreement to supply arms and technical help to Cuba. US-Cuban relations remained in the deep-freeze, particularly after the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1963.#/IOpBURIn Burundi (85% Hutu, 14%Tutsi, 1%Twa) power struggles between King and Tutsi leaders necessitated Hutu alliances, thus permitting more Hutu participation than in ethnically identical Rwanda. Tutsis feared loss of power from UN pressure on Belgium to democratize before 1962 independence. The king's son, of the Tutsi-dominated UPRONA party, was assassinated by Tutsi rivals in October 1961 politicizing ethnic ties. The monarchy, controlling both bureaucracy and army, deprived Hutu and most Tutsi of significant power.The King called elections in May 1965, reneged on democratization when the Hutu party defeated UPRONA, introduced a second, nominated chamber, and rejected all Hutu nominees for Prime Minister. With fewer elected officials, every electoral route to Hutu power seemed foreclosed.A weak Hutu coup attempt failed but the King fled. Hutu attacks on Tutsi in the provinces triggered a massive army response. Some hundred Hutu officers and politicians were executed in the capital, and 2500-5000 Hutu elsewhere. Army power was now unchallenged.The new king was deposed by Captain Michel Micombero who declared a republic. Hutu politicians and soldiers staged a failed coup in 1969.The Army response to a failed Hutu coup in 1972 killed 100,000-200,000, including virtually all educated Hutus, and spawned a like number of refugees.Differences within the military elite were contained until 1976 when Micombero was overthrown by Col. Jean-Baptiste Bagaza who sought to pacify Hutu with land reform and economic development instead of political reform. He was replaced by coup in 1987 by Major Pierre Buyoya who continued the exclusion of Hutu from real power.With rumors rampant in both communities that attacks by the other were planned, unannounced army maneuvers sparked Hutu to burn bridges to hinder the army, and caused the Tutsi to flee. Hutu interpreted the fleeing Tutsi as the signal of a pogrom and murdered some hundreds. The army then killed an estimated 15,000 Hutu.Buyoya's attempts to lessen tension by reintroducing Hutu into his army and administration were resisted by the Bagaza faction and the army. A new constitution adopted by referendum in 1992, however, provided for representation by all ethnic groups. Unexpectedly a Hutu, Melichior Ndadaye, was elected President in June, 1993. [Phase 3-4: 10/1993] The President was assassinated when a failed coup left 100,000 dead, 600,000 refugees in neighboring countries, and one million internally displaced. The new President, Hutu Silvester Nibantunganya, failed to control the Tutsi-dominated army and died in a suspicious plane crash in April 1994 [Phase 4-4: 9/1994] An agreement on power-sharing was reached with UN help, and a weak coalition government took office. [Phase 3-5: 4/1995] Tutsi-led army attacks on Hutu civilians led to massive Hutu flight and almost complete ethnic segregation. [Phase 4-5: 6/1995] An OAU peace mission arrived. After 17,000 Hutu refugees were turned back at the Tanzanian border in January 1996, the UNSYG proposed sending guards to defend aid workers and a rapid-reaction force on standby in Zaire. The OAU approved but the Burundian army was opposed. The UNSC on March 5 1996 opted for diplomatic solutions, but by mid-1996 wholesale killings were reported by both Tutsi-dominated army and Hutu rebels. Regional sanctions were imposed accompanied by intense mediatory efforts, with former Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere as facilitator, paralleled by efforts by the St. Egidio community in Rome. In early June, 1998 President Pierre Buyoya signed into law a transitional constitution including in government the mostly Hutu Frodebu party plus other reforms. Later that month the warring factions agreed to a truce and another round of negotiations to end the fighting that had produced more than 150,000 casualties since 1993.# CAMThe Vietnam-backed Heng Samrin regime now controlled Phnom Penh and most of Cambodia east of Thailand. Skirmishes continued along the border. Cambodia faced famine from agricultural disruption and near anarchy. By October 280,000 tons of food aid had arrived from the USSR and Vietnam, and 2,000 tons from the West. A large US aid program was targeted at border camps. With food from Western donors going to refugee populations and direct military aid from China, the Khmer Rouge regrouped on the Thai border. Western support fostered smaller anti-communist movements, the two largest led by Son Sann (Serei) and Prince Sihanouk. These 3 opposition groups, under pressure from the US and ASEAN, formed an unstable alliance against the Heng regime in February 1981.A pattern emerged over the next decade of hostilities during the December-April dry season, and retrenchment during the wet season. Viet attacks were particularly heavy in 1981 and 1983-85. In the late 1980s, the Khmer Rouge began to strike deeper into Cambodia. Periodic talks under UN, ASEAN, and French auspices failed over the issue of Khmer Rouge and Heng regime participation in any future government.As some Vietnamese troops withdrew and US-USSR relations improved, the US in July 1990 abandoned its opposition to the Vietnam-installed regime. At Djarkata in September the parties tentatively committed to peace and to elections under UN supervision. In May 1991 the four combatants agreed to a cease-fire sponsored by France and the UNSYG. On October 23 the Paris Agreement called for a 70 per cent reduction in armies, with remaining weapons surrendered to UN peacekeepers; joint interim governance including all factions; and a UN Transition Authority (UNTAC) subsequently funded at $1.9 billion, to prepare for UN-supervised elections. Persistent Khmer Rouge violations of the agreement including refusal to demobilize, prompted UN-imposed trade sanctions on November 30,1992. The Khmer Rouge took no part in the UN-monitored May 1993 elections which brought to power the Royal Government of Cambodia. Cambodia remained divided between government zones and autonomous KR zones. Fighting continued propelling 30,000 refugees into Thailand. North Korea sponsored a round-table conference on "peace and national reconciliation" in May 1994, which led to a six-month amnesty for Khmer Rouge members. Several thousands defected, although a hard-core of 5-10,000 remained. Meanwhile the dual government of Hun Sen and Norodom Ranariddh broke down. In February, 1998 the rival factions signed a truce and in June the UN agreed to monitor elections scheduled for July. In April KR leader Pol Pot, responsible for mass murder of his people in the 1970's, died.#CARPossession of 3 islands in the Beagle Channel (Picton, Lennox, Nueva) had been in contention since the early 1800s colonial period. At stake also were their congruent maritime extensions (30,000 square miles), with fishing and mineral (especially oil) rights, and possible Antarctic rights. Often negotiated, the issue went to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in 1971 which ruled for Chile on May 2 1977. Argentina disputed the decision and sought bilateral negotiations. In July each side protested territorial buoys placed by the other. Argentina repeatedly violated Chilean air and maritime space. Bilateral negotiations failed. On 25 January 1978 Argentina declared the award "fundamentally null."Tensions increased. Two bilateral commissions, seeking a solution, accomplished little. Chile asked for ICJ mediation; Argentina sought continued negotiation. On December 9 1978 Argentina sent a naval squadron to the Beagle Channel region. Chile followed suit. Both prepared for war. On December 11 Pope John Paul II sent a personal message to both presidents urging a peaceful solution. War preparations continued as did diplomatic efforts to avert hostilities. Argentina complained to the UN; Chile asked the OAS to convene. On December 21 Chile accepted the Pope's mediation. Argentina did so the next day. On January 9 the Act of Montevideo was signed pledging both sides to a peaceful solution and a return to the military situation of early 1977. No significant reduction in tensions occurred until the democratic government of Raul Alfonsin took office in Argentina in December 1983 and on January 23 1984 signed, as did Chile a Treaty of Peace and Friendship.After 80 per cent of the Argentine electorate voted to accept the Vatican-mediated compromise, a protocol of agreement to a treaty was signed on October 18. It was ratified by Argentina on March 14 1985 and by Chile on April 12 1985.At the Vatican, Chile and Argentina signed a treaty giving the islands to Chile but most maritime rights to Argentina.#hbbFCHAThe population of Chad comprises Arabic-speaking Muslim nomads of North Africa and French-speaking sedentary farmers of Central Africa. After independence in 1960, the policies of President Francois Tombalbaye had the support of France. In response, northerners created FROLINAT (Front for the Liberation of Chad) which received arms from pre-Quadafi Libya. Libya had taken control of the mineral-rich Aouzou strip in 1973. In 1975 Tombalbaye was overthown and replaced by Gen. Felix Malloum who appointed as Vice-President FROLINAT leader Hissen Habre. The coalition fell apart.Habre's forces seized the capital, N'Djamena. In August representatives of 11 Chadian factions met in Lagos with observers from 10 African countries and the OAU. Goukini Oueddei became president of a transitional government of national unity (GUNT).Goukini and Habre forces fought in N'Djamena. GUNT arranged the withdrawal of French forces and with Libyan aid drove Habre's forces into Cameroon and W. Sudan. While recognizing GUNT, the US in 1981 sent aid to Habre via Egypt and Sudan. Goukini, at French insistence, persuaded Libya to withdraw by mid-November. Habre, circumventing OAU peacekeepers, retook N'Djamena in June 1982. Goukini, with Libyan help, attacked from the north. France sent troops to help Habre halt the offensive at the 16th parallel.France and Libya agreed to withdraw their forces from Chad, but Libyan President Muammar Quadafy reneged and took control above the 16th parallel. Chadians rallied to Habre.Goukini, with Libyan aid, attacked southward. France sent Habre air and logistic support. In September Goukini, with US aid, fought Libya. Libya's air attacks south of the 16th parallel threatened military confrontation with France.Quadafi, while maintaining his claim to the disputed Aouzou Strip, admitted his adventure into Chad had been a mistake. In August 1989 both sides agreed to withdraw troops and seek a peaceful settlement. When mediation failed to resolve the Aouzou Strip dispute, the case went to the ICJ, which ruled against Libya in February 1994.Libyan withdrawal from the Strip was monitored by a small UN observer group, UNASOG, and completed on May 31, 1994.# |CHVChina, whose relations with Vietnam were historically bad, backed Hanoi in its war with first France and then the US, but in 1975 suspended aid to Vietnam. By 1978 Vietnamese nationalized trading, enforced citizenship requirements and forced migration to new economic zones were adversely affecting ethnic Chinese. Refugee flows to China increased dramatically, provoking Chinese protests. Disputes between Vietnam and Cambodia (temporarily named Kampuchea) also increased, China and the US supporting the Kampuchean position. On November 3, Vietnam signed its first friendship treaty with the USSR. On December 15, the US and China announced normalization of relations.Vietnam backed an 'indigenous' revolt in Kampuchea against Pol Pot, the murderous communist ruler, and with 50,000 troops (ultimately 200,000) took Phnom Penh within 10 days. By January 1 Chinese troops were reported massing on the Vietnamese border. Both sides soon charged border violations and raids. The reported massing of Vietnamese troops near the border led to clashes. Chinese Vice Premier Deng Hsaio-Ping, during a US visit January 29-February 5, hinted at retaliation against the Vietnamese. Both the US and USSR sent naval forces to the area. Vietnam asked for international assistance.China entered Vietnam in strength to "teach Vietnam a lesson". Casualties on both sides were reported high. International opinion generally condemned China. The US was accused by the USSR, Taiwan, and Vietnam of tacit backing of China. Vietnam requested UNSC action, but the Council temporized. Soviet aid to Vietnam increased. Fighting continued sporadically until mid-March.Peace talks began, but remained deadlocked during negotiations from April-July. UNSYG Kurt Waldheim facilitated a POW trade. Accusations by both sides focused on border raids and the plight of ethnic Chinese in Vietnam.China reported a Vietnamese border attack and massing of Vietnamese troops. From February thru December 1980 Vietnam charged Chinese aggression. China rejected Vietnamese offers to resume stalled peace talks. Vietnamese attempts to eradicate Kampuchean rebels on the Thai-Kampuchean border were met by Chinese military activity on Vietnam's northern border.After a decade of competition over Cambodian rule and the potentially oil-rich Spratly Islands [see SPI], China and Vietnam backed a UN plan for pacifying Cambodia, and held secret meetings to reconcile their differences. Trade having increased by 60% in 1995, agreement was reached in December to restore rail links and boost trade and investment. Each side renewed a pledge to resolve territorial disputes peacefully.#COLGeneral Gustavo Rojas Pinilla's National Popular Alliance (NPA) party charged fraud after its close loss to the established Liberal and Conservative parties in the April 19 presidential elections. NPA radicals stole the sword and epaulets of Simon Bolivar, famed Central American liberator, the first of many such stunts by the Movimiento de Abril 19, or M-19. On February 27 1980 M-19 raided an Embassy reception, holding 52 hostages including ambassadors under siege for 61 days of negotiations. The guerrillas then flew to Cuba with ransom money and the promise of an international commission to monitor human rights. In November 1982 President Belisario Betancur offered amnesty to 6 rebel groups including M-19. 900 political prisoners were freed and 1000 rebels turned in weapons. M-19 lost support by demanding further concessions. Continuing violence led to a signed truce on August 24 1984 to take effect in a week. The truce survived the assassination of a M-19 founding member and parliamentarian by the right wing. An armistice was negotiated, but charges of violations on both sides soon ended the truce.M-19 raided the Palace of Justice in Bogota. The army, without Presidential consultation, laid siege. A day later the 100 dead included the Supreme Court President, 5 Justices, and all M-19 raiders, an event that spurred increased violence by rebel groups of left and right, drug traffickers, the military and police.M-19 declared a unilateral cease fire. Against a background of extensive chaos and limited military gains, the government and M-19 reopened talks on April 1 1989. M-19 sought constitutional changes to break the ruling two-party coalition, an economic plan to help the poor and judicial reforms.M-19 renounced violence and after the presidentail election became the third largest political party. M-19 leader Navarro Wolff opened talks with five other guerrilla groups to moderate their violent opposition, and entered the Cabinet. A popular vote on December 1990 gave M-19 the largest delegation to the convention to rewrite the 1886 constitution. M-19 lost electoral support as protest votes turned elsewhere. Other rebel groups remained active. By 1996 guerrilla numbers resembled those of a decade earlier, but most were thought to seek the money to be made from kidnappings and extortion, and from guarding coca crops and drug factories, rather than social change. President Ernesto Samper, elected in 1994, established a peace commission to arrange peace talks, but his government was weakened by evidence of drug-related corruption involving the President himself. President Andres Pastrana improved prospects for domestic peace by unprecedentedly meeting wit h the head of the leading Marxist rebel group in July 1998 a month after being elected.#CONKatanga province's President Moise Tshombe requested Belgian paratroopers to quell rebels in the chaos following the Congo's independence from Belgian rule (the country is Zaire today). The UN created a UN peacekeeping force for the Congo (ONUC). On July 11, just prior to ONUC's arrival to arrange Belgian withdrawal, Tshombe declared Katanga independent.Tshombe ordered mobilization to resist the UN force, which he called "Lumumba's agent" referring to leftist Premier Patrice Lumumba. ONUC neutrality in the dispute between Lumumba and President Joseph Kasavubu, each of whom dismissed the other, made possible the peaceful entry of UN peacekeepers. Events culminating in Lumumba's murder in February 1961 engendered crises in the Congo and also the UN and Africa. This reinforced Tshombe's position, now supported by an army led by white mercenaries. ONUC was authorized to use force to end Katanga's secession. On August 28 UN troops began rounding up mercenaries in Katanga. Tshombe refused negotiations.ONUC attacked, declared the secession ended, but agreed to a truce on September 21. Dissatisfied with this compromise, central government forces invaded on October 30 but were routed. With a renewed UNSC mandate, ONUC attacked again on December 5 but desisted on December 18 when Tshombe agreed to unity talks. When these failed a year later, ONUC attacked and finally overcame Katangese resistance. A monumental crisis ensued in the UN featuring Soviet political assaults from the left on the UNSYG, and from the right by thwarted Katanga-based mining interests and their political supporters in Europe and the US.Katanga surrendered to ONUC and the Leopoldville government. A January 17 agreement permitted Congolese civil and military personnel to supervise reintegration. [The Congo became Zaire in 1971, its capital Leopoldville renamed Kinshasa. With the defeat of Zairean government forces in 1996 and the departure of dictator Mobutu Sese Seko in the spring of 1997, the victorious rebel leader Laurent Kabi la renamed Zaire the Democratic Republic of the Congo.]#'CUBPost-war economic stagnation, worsened by the inelastic US sugar market, underlay the coup d'etat by Cuban General Fulgencio Batista y Zaldivar on March 10 1952.Guerrilla leader Fidel Castro planned to occupy the Moncada Barracks and establish a popular militia to support a revolutionary government controlling the eastern area. On July 26 1953, the Batista government repulsed the Moncada attack, captured surviving rebels and suspended civil rights. On release from prison in a general amnesty following Batista's 1954 election, Castro organized an invasion force in Mexico. A planned uprising by disaffected students and professionals failed to occur on November 30.With no popular uprising, Castro's invading force was decimated. The 17 survivors regrouped in Cuba's Sierra Maestra mountains. For two years the 26 July Movement, with mounting local and foreign support, conducted an insurgency campaign that brought on widespread governmental repression. On March 14 1958 the US suspended arms aid to Batista whose brutal counter-terror tactics alienated even his own troops. Their defections aided a gradual collapse after July 1958 when a Castro-initiated unity pact signed in Venezuela brought together most groups opposing Batista except the Cuban Communist Party.After Santa Clara fell, Batista left for the Dominican Republic. Castro's movement accepted the surrender of remaining forces and quickly established itself as the government. [See BOP]#F)aCYCIndependence from Britain after the long struggle over "enosis" (union with Greece [see CYE] left sharp communal differences between Greek and Turkish Cypriots. The 1960 constitution gave the President (Greek-Cypriot Archbishop Makarios III) and Vice-President (Turkish- Cypriot Rauf Denktash) some veto powers, barred enosis and/or partition, and permitted two British bases and the stationing of Greek and Turkish troops.President Makarios proposed constitutional changes designed to remove a bottleneck in government by curtailing the legislative powers of the T-Cypriots. T-Cypriot rejection provoked G-Cypriot anger and violent disputes.Clashes between armed irregulars provoked severe communal fighting and the centralized administration collapsed. A Turkish invasion threat, plus Soviet objection to (and Cypriot rejection of) a NATO peace force, led to UNSC approval on March 4 of a peacekeeping force, UNFICYP, and a UN mediator. Renewed conflict included bombing raids from Turkey in August.After pacification, both sides rearmed. The G-Cypriot request to end three-power guarantees renewed T-Cypriot fear of enosis.The G-Cypriot National Guard touched off serious fighting. Turkish mobilization prompted a US-UN-NATO-sponsored mediation mission led by US deputy secretary of defense Cyrus Vance.A threatened Turkish invasion was called off, and both Greece and Turkey agreed to withdraw all non-Cypriot forces, except UN peacekeepers, from the island. Direct communal negotiations began in 1968 but made little progress.After the death of enosis-advocate rebel G-Cypriot Gen. George Grivas in January 1974, G-Cypriot troops in July overthrew the government led by Archbishop Makarios, who then charged the Greek military government with complicity in the coup. Fearing enosis, Turkish forces invaded and occupied 45% of the island.The T-Cypriots, with one-fifth of the populace and per capita income one-third of Greek Cyprus, in 1983 declared 37% of the island the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" but it is recognized only by Turkey. UN mediation under Diego Cordovez featured a proposal, rejected by the T-Cypriots, for a bizonal federation in which each community would retain a majority in areas it controls. The situation escalated when in January, 1997 G-Cyprus announced purchase of Russian S-300 anti-aircraft missiles, which Turkey threatened to bomb if installed. Prospects were further dimmed by the European Union's decision in December, 1997 to put off Turkey's membership application but opening talks in April 1998 on membership for Cyprus; T-Cypriots rejected an invitation to be part of the Cypriot negotiating team. Tensions increased in June 1998 with Greece and Turkey competitively deploying warplanes on the island . UNFICYP continued to patrol the "Green Line".#9CYEBritish-occupied Cyprus contained two communities, the Greek Orthodox Christians (75%) and Turkish Muslims (18%), who lived for the most part in mutual cultural isolation. Greek-Cypriot pressures on Britain to permit "enosis" (union with Greece) increased markedly after 1950.The Cypriot Patriarch, Archbishop Makarios III, directed political and military efforts designed to achieve enosis by provoking British repression and attracting UN attention. Greek sympathizers sent arms. The UN's failure to support self-determination, the transfer of the British Middle East Command from Suez to Cyprus, plus secret Greek encouragement, all underlay a decision by Greek-Cypriot leaders to begin hostilities.Coordinated sabotage and violent demonstrations brought on a State of Emergency on November 26 1955. Greece, Turkey, and Britain failed to agree on ultimate sovereignty. Turkey and Turkish Cypriots demanding partition of the island between Greek and Turkish Cypriots grew more militant. In September 1958, Makarios, by changing the emphasis from self-determination to independence, paved the way for a 3-power agreement in principle.Greece, Turkey and Britain agreed to become guarantors of independence without either enosis or partition. The Republic of Cyprus was established on August 16 1960. [Conflict continued between Greek and Turkish communities in Cyprus, and in the late 1990's UNFICYP remained in place. See CYC.]#`CZEIntermittent popular opposition during 45 years of Soviet-enforced communist rule continued as student groups organized forums and discussions of possible reforms, both illegally and through the official youth organization. By 1989, following profound changes in Soviet domestic and foreign policy including the implicit revocation of the Brezhnev Doctrine during revolutionary reform in Poland, talk of reform escalated among students and such established opposition groups as Charter 77.A permitted student demonstration to honor the 50th anniversary of a Czech student martyr on November 17, 1989, which thousands attended, was violently suppressed by riot police as the crowd approached Wenceslas Square, killing one and injuring many. Next morning large numbers of students and others returned to the Square and a student group congregated in a theatre to consider further plans including a strike. Support from other diverse groups such as Charter 77 led to the formation of Civic Forum (CV) whose most prominent leader was dissident playwright Vaclav Havel. A sister Slovakian organization, People Against Violence (PAV) also formed. Within 3 days government leaders faced hundreds of thousands of demonstrators led by CV leaders, demanding widespread political and economic reforms. By day 8 the entire Politburo and Central Committee resigned. On day 10, direct negotiations with the Prime Minister began. On day 17 President Gustav Husak, having promised to end Party domination, announced a new cabinet, ostensibly "a broad coalition" although Communist party members numbered 16 among 21 proposed members. Huge demonstrations persisted including a successful general strike on November 27. On December 10 Husak resigned and the Federal Assembly elected Vaclav Havel to the office to lead the country to free parliamentary elections.Following elections on June 8-9, in which Havel's Civic Forum and People Against Violence won a majority, Havel formed a new cabinet, "the government of national sacrifice" with a Slovak, Marian Calfa, as Prime Minister. Havel was reelected to the Presidency on July 5. [In 1992 Czechoslovakia was separated into two sovereign states, the Czech Republic and Slovakia]#GnDOMJuan Bosch's presidential victory in December 1962 sparked local commercial-military alarm at his alleged pro-Communism, and at the new Constitution of April 1963. On September 1 1963 a military coup installed a Triumvirate that was eventually led by Gen. Donald Reid Cabral with US support.The replacement of Bosch's elected goverment prompted young military officers to rally to Bosch's PRD party. In late 1964, in the Rio Piedras Pact, they vowed to restore the constitutional President.The rebellion against the military junta began prematurely, but military professionals in the leadership refused to engage the rebels. Street crowds, hailing Reid's decision to step down, overwhelmed the police. When the installation of a provisional President was broken up by junta-inspired air raids, the populace was inflamed. The US, fearing a Communist Cuban-style take-over, landed Marines on April 28 ostensibly to protect American lives, later supporting Gen.Antonio Imbert Barreras as provisional President. OAS, UN, US and Red Cross mediation efforts alternated with periods of heavy fighting. Finally, the OAS-sponsored peacekeeping force, IAPF, became effective and won popular support. Hector Garcia Godoy was accepted conditionally by both sides as provisional President, but substantial US pressure was required to persuade Imbert to retire.The Act of Reconciliation led to a general amnesty and Garcia's installation on September 3.Newly-elected President Joaquin Balaguer took office, and IAPF withdrawal began. [Despite continued, though gradually decreasing, political instability marked by threats of military coups, acts of terrorism and mass demonstrations, President Balguer was reelected in 1970 and 1974, defeated in 1978, reelected although blind in 1986 and again in 1990 in a close election that required a recount, and finally replaced in May 1996.]#g|DRHForeign hostility to the Haitian regime ruled by Francois "Papa Doc" Duvalier, and expectations of an internal revolt, were heightened after President Duvalier acted to end open rivalry between the army and the thuggish "Tonton Macoute" palace guard by forcibly retiring 63 leading army officers. Those not arrested sought refuge in foreign embassies. After a reported attempt on the lives of Duvalier's children, two Haitian police entered the Dominican Republic embassy in Port-au-Prince on April 26, seized 22 Haitians as alleged assassins and refused to leave without them.DR President Juan Bosch threatened invasion unless the police withdrew. An OAS mission arrived April 30. By May 2, 4,000 DR troops were at the border, gunfire was heard through Port-au-Prince and a US naval force stood offshore. The DR agreed to defer action pending the OAS report. On May 3 Duvalier declared martial law and on May 6 in the UNSC charged the DR with aggression. DR troops began pulling back on May 13. By July 16 Duvalier declared all internal resistance ended. A new crisis occurred when Haitian exiles invaded from the DR on August 5 and 18, prompting renewed OAS mediation and UN debate. On September 23 the DR accused Haiti in the OAS and UN of bombarding the Dominican town of Dajabon. Subsequently the DR, having determined the facts, withdrew its charges.With the deposition of President Bosch by a coup and with Duvalier firmly in control in Haiti, the episode ended. [Even long after the dictatorships of Duvalier father and son, relations between the French and Spanish speaking neighbors on the island of Hispaniola remained cool. June 1998 saw the first visit to Hai ti in 70 years of a Dominican Republic president who signed agreements on tourism, taxation, postal service and cultural exchanges.]# ELSIndependent since 1841, El Salvador was ruled by a landed oligarchy with military support. Vast inequalities in wealth plus dependence on coffee exports created instability. A 1932 Farabundo Marti revolt was crushed with a massacre. Elected President Jose Maria Lemus was overthrown in 1960. Violence, boycotts and fraud charges marked elections in 1962 and 1967.A military coup supporting Christian Democrat candidate Jose Napoleon Duarte failed after a close election with no clear winner. He was tortured and exiled. Leftist groups with external ties began bombings and kidnappings, while rightist death squads, believed linked to government, began an escalating pattern of executions. On October 15 1979 Cols. Jaime Abdul Gutierrez and Adolfo Arnoldo Majano led a reformist coup as business elites fled with their capital. Civilian junta leaders resigned in early 1980 to protest repression and failure to implement promised reforms.Government troops fired on demonstrators. A state of siege was declared in rural areas. Military elements assassinated Archbishop Oscar Arnulfo Romero. In April 1980, 18 leftist groups united and in October created a paramilitary affiliate, the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN). Charges of human rights violations escalated. Thousands (including three American nuns) were killed, allegedly by government forces. The junta reorganized under Duarte, the first civilian president in 49 years. FMLN activity increased. Elections in 1984 and 1985 strengthened Duarte's party as did a major commitment of military funds and training by the US, where intervention became a disputed Cold War issue. Successive peace talks from 1985 to 1991 failed. Rebel attacks dwindled as government displaced some half-million people and economic conditions deteriorated. With a dying Duarte marginalized, rebels offered in January 1989 a 60-day cease-fire and participation if elections were postponed. The request was denied and right-wing ARENA candidate Alfredo Christiani took power June 1 1990 after an election marked by boycotts and disrupted polling. Christiani received some $1 million a day in US aid. October saw a massive rebel offensive and the death squad murder of 6 Jesuit priests.Under UN auspices the government and five guerrilla commanders agreed on military and economic steps to end the conflict. Peace accords were signed on January 16 1992.A cease-fire went into effect, ending a war that took took 75,000 lives. [The agreed measures moved ahead under the guidance of a UN observer mission, ONUSAL, which completed its work and departed in late April 1995]#PRAAESHSalvadorans without opportunities at home, who settled in sparsely-populated Honduras, felt threatened by action to preserve for native Hondurans land redistributed under agrarian reform. Rioting sparked by Regional World Soccer Cup playoffs led to expulsion and/or flight of some 11,000 Salvadorans.El Salvador declared a state of siege and called up reservists. Honduras asserted that only illegal settlers had been expelled. Trade and diplomatic relations were broken. A 3-nation Central American Common Market (CACM) mission failed to prevent border clashes. An OAS peace mission arrived as hostilities started.Honduran planes attacked targets in El Salvador in retaliation for a bombing raid, as Salvadoran troops crossed the border on three fronts ostensibly to protect 200,000 nationals still in Honduras.The OAS mission obtained a de facto cease-fire. New forces moved to border areas in both countries but OAS pressure brought about Salvadoran withdrawal on August 7. A border DMZ, supervised by OAS advisers, was established on June 4 1970.Both countries signed a mediation agreement in October 1976 to establish a common border and normalize movement of people between them. In December 1986 they asked for an ICJ ruling on the border, and in May 1987 both pledged to accept the Court's ruling.The Court presented its settling the border dispute, a ruling which it described as the most complicated it had ever handled.#P ETEIn 1952 the UN created a federation that joined British-occupied Eritrea to Ethiopia, which had been an Italian colony since 1890. Ethiopia gained an advanced economy and long seacoast. In 1962 Emperor Haile Selassie terminated the federation. Secessionist movements among exiles attracted radical Arab and communist support but remained fragmented along ethnic and religious lines. Economic depression in Eritrea after closure of the Suez Canal in 1967 swelled guerrilla bands.Loosely united under the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), guerrilla bands received Soviet and Chinese arms via South Yemen and Sudan, while Cuba, China and the PLO offered training. Clashes between conservative Muslims and mostly Christian Marxists limited insurgent effectiveness, which weakened further when China ended aid after receiving Ethiopian recognition and Sudan broke its Soviet ties. After 1972 the Marxist wing (ELPF) gained ascendancy over the ELF. Stalemate in Eritrea hastened Selassie's downfall. General Aman Adom became head of state and initiated efforts for peace.The murder of Adom by Lt.Col. Mengistu Haile-Mariam triggered a violent leftward turn by insurgents. When Soviet-backed efforts to incorporate Eritrea and the Ogaden in an Ethiopia-Somali federation failed after Somalia invaded Ethiopia in 1977 [see OGA], the USSR abandoned Somalia and Eritrean insurgents and sent massive arms and 20,000 Cubans to aid Mengistu, who regained most of Eritrea.An ELPF rally with support from Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Sudan, led to political paralysis. The Eritrean insurgency plus economic restructuring brought on acute famine in 1984-85 and refugee flows to Sudan.Eritrean forces won a major victory. Ethiopian counterattacks in May 1988 were repelled. Further insurgent success triggered a failed coup attempt in May 1989 by soldiers seeking peace. Under Soviet pressure for peace, two major groups and Mengistu met with former US President Jimmy Carter in Atlanta but talks were discontinued by the insurgents in December.US mediation of formal peace talks led to agreement in July 1991 on a transitional government and Eritrea's right to a UN-supervised referendum on independence in 1993.Eritrea became a distinct political unit. An April 1993 referendum supported secession.Ethiopia recognized Eritrea as an independent and sovereign state. [Since independence Eritrea has asserted territorial claims against Sudan, Djibouti, Yemen and Ethiopia. In May 1998 Eritrea, locked in a currency squabble with Ethiopia, accused it of illegally occupying the 150 square mile Yigra Triangle in northwest Ethiopia and sent troops to the undemarcated border. Heavy fighting broke out in June with hundreds of casualties. On June 15 Ethiopia agreed to a US-Rwandan peace plan and later in June the OAU authorized four African states to try to mediate the conflict.].#EUSEconomically underdeveloped Ecuador, lacking an exploitable continental shelf and mindful of the rich fishing potential off its coast, in 1952 along with Peru and Chile claimed a 200-mile territorial limit. The US continued to recognize a 3-mile limit plus, in 1966, a 9-mile contiguous fisheries zone. The so-called "tuna war" began in 1963 when a US fishing boat challenging the 200-mile limit was seized and fined by Ecuador. Other seizures followed, also in Peru and Chile. In 1967 the US began compensating the fined US owners although not deducting the amount from aid to Ecuador as US law provided. In December 1968 US military sales to Ecuador were suspended under a newly-passed law, but renewed in July 1969 despite further seizures. Four-nation talks were held in August 1969 and September 1970. On January 18 1971, with seizures since 1966 totalling 28 vessels, the US again suspended military sales and placed all aid "under review." The OAS opposed U.S. moves to submit the case to inter-American peaceful settlement or the ICJ. On February 1, Ecuador ordered the US military mission withdrawn. By March 3 seizures for 1971 alone totalled 25.A US freighter 600 miles off Ecuador was stopped by warning shots across its bow from an Ecuadorian warship, but allowed to proceed. An apology was demanded and received, but without explanation. Concurrently the American Tunaboat Association and 12 labor unions attempted a boycott of Ecuadorian ships and products. In 1972, in defiance of the US State Department, the Association bought fishing licenses from Ecuador as the Japanese were doing. A year later, fines outstanding still totalled $4 million.The US proposed a Pacific "regional association" whereby all members would recognize other members' right to a 200-mile offshore zone for resource conservation. No formal discussions were held but eventually all tuna boat owners purchased licenses. [Most countries have since adopted an "exclusive economic zone" (EEZ) which is now a provision of the UN Law of the Sea treaty. The treaty was signed in 1982 and came into force in 1994 having received 60 ratifications. The 200-mile EEZ is observed by many states that have not signed and/or not ratified the treaty.]#=FAMAt independence in 1816 Argentina claimed the uninhabited Falkland Islands by right of colonial succession, but Britain in 1833 reasserted an earlier claim, displaced Argentine settlers and established an enduring presence. Argentina claimed the South Georgia (1927) and South Sandwich (1948) Islands and agreed with Chile on joint defense of their rights in the Falklands against British claims. London declined a 1953 purchase offer. By 1966 "Malvinas" was a cause celebre among Argentine nationalists, subsequently aggravated by oil and gas discoveries. The UN attempted many fruitless negotiations 1966-82. By 1981 domestic economic and political crises in Argentina led to demonstrations against the military government, accused of massive "disappearances" and homicides. Army Commander Leopoldo Galtieri in December 1981 formed a new junta with navy and air force commanders.Argentine workers dismantling an old whaling station raised an Argentine flag. The UK protested to the UNSC. Leaders on both sides made increasingly hostile speeches.An Argentine invasion force seized the islands, overcoming a token Royal Marines force. The UK severed ties and called for Argentine withdrawal. On April 5 a UK task force put to sea, US good offices were offered and rejected by both sides, and the task force arrived in the area on April 25. The UK action was supported by the US and condemned by Latin nations and the USSR. Argentina rejected aid offered by Cuba. Naval battles from May 5-26 cost six ships, 250 British and 750 Argentine lives. Diplomatic efforts by the UN, Peru, and the Vatican collapsed or were rejected by the UK. Pitched battles May 14-26 saw 5,000 UK troops advance on East Falkland. The UK launched its final Stanley offensive on June 11.15,000 Argentine troops surrendered. In 1984 negotiations foundered over the sovereignty issue. Negotiations reopened in 1989 when President Carlos Menem declared willingness to normalize relations without discussing sovereignty. In February 1990 full diplomatic relations were restored, air and sea links reestablished, the British 150-mile exclusion zone abolished and agreeement reached to resolve the sovereignty issue non-violently. In April 1992 Menem predicted recovery of the territory before the year 2000, and in June 1995 he spoke of buying out the islanders.#GIBGibraltar was captured by the British in 1704 during the war of Spanish succession, and ceded to Britain in the Treaty of Utrecht (1713). Spain has periodically disputed British sovereignty since 1778. Francisco Franco in 1963 took Spain's case to the UN, which in 1966 rejected self-determination as an option. But some 25,000 Gibraltarians, offered the right to remain under British rule as long as they wished, voted 12,138 to 44 in favor in a 1967 referendum. In December 1968 the UN called on Britain to end Gibraltar's colonial status by October 1 1969. The British met the letter though not the spirit or intent of the UN's declaration by making Gibraltar a self-governing dependency in the constitution of May 30 1969. Outraged, Franco closed the border, including telepone links, on June 6 1969. After Franco's death in 1975, democratic Spain's application to join the EEC in July 1977 implied compromise in that British support for Spain appeared at least partially contingent on a resolution, since a blockade of one EEC member by another was unthinkable. Spain's belligerence was modified also by its links with the US, Britain's main ally, and by the prospect that Morocco might see a precedent and try to recover Spain's North African possessions of Ceuta and Melilla. In April 1980 the two parties signed the Lisbon agreements, providing that the border would open in return for talks "without preconditions". Public opposition in Spain, intensified by the 1982 Falklands/Malvinas war, delayed the opening. Filipe Gonzalez's socialist government reached agreement with Britain in November 1984 to reopen the border in February 1985, in exchange for discussions respecting both the inhabitants' wishes and the sovereignty issue. Britain supported Spain's accession to the EEC, completed in mid-1985. Britain's dilemma remained of its commitment to self-determination and the implacable opposition of Gibraltar's inhabitants to any concessions to Spain. A 1987 attempt to give greater Spanish access to Gibraltar's airport prompted a petition signed by almost all adults and threats of wildcat strikes. In 1997 Spain proposed joint control for 50-60 years, and the Gibraltar government suggested a status of "crown dependency" like the Channel Islands. In December Spain proposed joint sovereignty, immediately rejected by Gibraltans.#"GICRelations between Guinea and Ivory Coast (IC), long strained by the ideological split between Guinean President Sekou Toure and IC President Felix Houphouet-Boigny (acknowledged leader of the French-speaking West African moderates), had been exacerbated by 1) Guinea's imprisonment of a high IC official, Francois Kamano, for alleged subversion, and 2) IC sponsorship of the OCAM regional organization in 1965 and its subsequent inclusion of discredited Premier Moise Tshombe's Congo (Zaire after 1971). [see CON] Relations worsened in the wake of Ghana President Kwame Nkrumah's downfall on February 24 1966 and his welcome in exile by Toure.Reports of Toure's pledge to send forces via the Ivory Coast to help restore Nkrumah prompted Houphouet to deploy troops to block the "Guinean hordes," while also threatening French and Conseil de l'Entente (an African subgroup of the French Community) intervention. In February 1967 Guinea seized an off-shore IC trawler allegedly involved in a plot to kidnap Nkrumah. In June the Ivory Coast retaliated by arresting the Guinean Foreign Minister and UN representative when their plane landed at Abidjan. After mediation attempts by Liberia, Niger, Mali and the UN, an OAU summit conference finally opened the door to conciliation.The Guinean diplomats were released simultaneously with 23 IC citizens (including Kamano). [After Toure's death in 1984 Guinea's relations with its African neighbors improved.]#%GPGThe fight against Portuguese hegemony in Portuguese Guinea was led by the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and the Cape Verde Islands (PAIGC) in Guinea, where PAIGC headquarters operated openly. Guerrillas were trained by Cuban and possibly Soviet instructors. Guinean President Sekou Toure blamed Portugal for attacks on his life in 1969 and early 1970.The Guinean militia was alerted to a perceived threat from Portuguese Guinea.Armed groups landed near Conakry, burned buildings, freed some political prisoners, and were repulsed. Toure, charging a Portuguese invasion, appealed for UN troops. Two further landings occurred. Several African states and the OAU SYG offered military assistance, which proved unnecessary. A UNSC fact-finding team later identified the invaders as Guinean dissidents and Portuguese forces commanded by white Portuguese (350-400 in all) whose purpose was to overthrow Toure, put dissidents in power, weaken the PAIGC and free Portuguese prisoners.The UNSC endorsed the team's report despite Lisbon's denials, and on December 8 voted to condemn Portugal (the US, UK, France and Spain abstaining). On December 11 the OAU condemned NATO countries' complicity with Portugal and offered action to strengthen anti-Portuguese guerrillas.With the collapse of the Portuguese dictatorship, Portuguese Guinea became the independent country of Guinea Bissau in the fall of 1974, and was granted diplomatic recognition by Guinea.#]GREDisaffected by P.M. Eric Gairy's corruption, urban intellectuals, including Maurice Bishop, formed an opposition party, MAP. By 1972 a new agrarian movement had combined with MAP in the New Jewel Movement (NJM). Strikes were called after Gairy's police beat NJM activists and they became more violent. In 1974, the year of independence, police killed Bishop's father during a demonstration. NJM became more Marxist-Leninist. Bernard Coard formed a radical student group, OREL, which he later used to control NJM and its developing clandestine military wing. Gairy's troops fired on NJM demonstrators, killing one. In the 1976 elections Bishop led the opposition in alliance with moderate social democrats, some of whom left as Coard's strength increased. Coard favored Leninist-type party rule. The 1979 oil shock and brutal Mongoose Gang police further destabilized Gairy's government. While Gairy was at the UN, Bishop and 46 NJM militants staged a nearly bloodless coup and installed a "radical leftist" regime. The public rejoiced. The US discouraged international funding and Grenada sought aid from the USSR, Libya, Cuba and Venezuela.The Bishop-Coard split worsened. During a 1983 US visit, Bishop cooled his rhetoric, but the US threatened to end aid if the Cuban link remained. On October 13, Coard's faction arrested Bishop.A popular demonstration freed Bishop. The Revolutionary Military Council fired on the crowd, killing Bishop and several ministers. Cuba's Castro denounced the murders; the USSR praised the RMC. By October 21 the US, Barbados, Jamaica, and Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) had plans to intervene. Grenada's Governor General requested help. On October 25 US troops invaded, ostensibly to protect US students. The troops were opposed by some local forces and Cubans (mainly construction workers). At an urgent UNSC meeting, OECS states termed the NJM a threat to peace. The US vetoed a resolution condemning its action as a violation of international law.All resistance ended after 87 Grenadian, Cuban and US casualties. The UNGA approved a Nicaraguan resolution condemning the US with nine opposed. Herbert Blaize was elected Prime Minister. A US military force remained until June 1985.#~GRIThe WWII Greek resistance coalition, known as the National Liberation Front (EAM), and its army (ELAS) were dominated by the KKE (Communist Party) with which the Greek government-in-exile had long been in dispute.EAM formed the Political Committee of National Liberation to challenge the government for control of post-war Greece. After failing to prevent returning government and British forces from resuming control of Athens, the KKE agreed at Varkiza on February 12 1945 to disband and surrender its weapons. Subsequently the KKE sought to rebuild its organization and expand its political base.Hostilities with the Greek gendarmerie started in the area adjacent to the Yugoslav-Albanian-Bulgarian borders. Guerrillas who had fled after Varkiza returned from their northern sanctuaries. In September the Greek Army moved in. The KKE assumed open leadership of the revolt and formed a Provisional Government. On October 21 1947 the UNGA formed a committee, UNSCOB, to supervise developments on the northern borders. When Yugloslavia closed the Greek border in July 1949 the guerrillas lost their supply depots and fled into exile in Albania.The KKE's Provisional Government announced that it had put aside its arms. [During the 1967-1974 military dictatorship, the KKE emerged as a pro-Moscow faction in opposition to the EDA, or United Democratic Left which derived from the communist faction that was nationalist-oriented. KKE in 1981 secured parliamentary representation alongside the dominant PASOK and New Democracy parties.]#68-GUAThe Communist movement, surfacing during the regime of Juan Jose Arevalo, strongly influenced the policies of his elected successor Jacobo Arbenz, who took office in March '51. His anti-US policies reinforced US fear of a possible Communist base in the Western Hemisphere.Anti-Arbenz Guatemalan exiles under Col. Castillo Armas gathered in Honduras to plan an invasion. When the Organization of American States (OAS) Caracas conference failed to support multilateral intervention, the US through the CIA increased its support of Castillo. In May the arrival of Soviet-bloc weapons prompted a US-Honduras mutual assistance treaty (matching a recent one with Nicaragua) with arms deliveries to both. Fear of invasion prompted severe repression by the regime which forfeited public support, while the military urged Arbenz to reject his Communist supporters.Castillo Armas attacked with 200-300 troops. Guatemala protested to a) the UN which called for a cease-fire and then deferred to b) the OAS which appointed a fact-finding mission, whose entry Arbenz refused. By June 26 the invaders, with clandestine US support, were threatening the capital, and the army approached the US for help in arranging a cease-fire. A strongly anti-Arbenz junta was eventually formed under Col. Elfego Monzon.A cease-fire agreement was reached. Castillo Armas was elected to head the junta on July 8 and received US recognition on July 13, but the conflict between left and right that was to take 100,000 lives over 35 years continued in various forms.Efforts to end the conflict and confront its root causes accelerated in the 1990's. In 1992 the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Mayan activist Rigoberta Menchu. In March 1996 Newly-elected president Alvaro Arzu ordered an end to offensive operations and the rebel URMG avoided clashes. Following mediation in Oslo by the so-called Group of Friends of the Guatemalan Peace Process, on December 4 the government and rebel leaders formally renounced the use of arms.A peace treaty was signed promising to end conflict-breeding discrimination against Guatemala's 60 percent Mayan population, plus reduction in the power of the often-brutal army and creation of a Truth Commission.# jGUVUnder President Kwame Nkrumah, Ghana early in 1963 allegedly built a school, with a lead-in road, in an area claimed by Upper Volta. Each side appointed commissioners to resolve the dispute. Ghana added a police post. The customs union between the two collapsed, and in July 1964 Upper Volta complained to the OAU. Ghana was conciliatory and further commission meetings ensued.It was apparent at the OAU that the border complaint masked a broader dispute arising from Nkrumah's suspected expansionist ambitions and neighboring states' suspicion of his support (including military training) of their political opposition. At OCAM's founding in February 1965 these charges led to a strong condemnation of Ghanian support for subversion and a decision of members neighboring Ghana to boycott the forthcoming OAU summit meeting in the Ghanain capital, Accra. Upper Volta also spoke of cutting off Volta River waters feeding Ghana's new industrial complex. Ghana withdrew from the disputed area.After Nkrumah's downfall, the new Ghanaian regime ended the training of refugees for subversion.A border agreement in principle with Upper Volta was reached in June 1966, and a commercial accord followed in 1967.#KGYVVenezuela, citing new evidence, denied the validity of an 1899 arbitral award assigning disputed territory to British Guiana. Prior to Guyanese independence in May 1966, Britain and the two parties deposited with the UNSYG the Geneva agreement establishing a Mixed Commission to seek solutions by 1970 when unresolved questions would be referred to the UN. During Guyana's independence celebrations Venezuelan personnel took control of part of Ankoko Island and were undiscovered until October, and in July 1968 Venezuela claimed sovereignty over a large stretch of coastal waters -- both areas on the Guyanese side of the 1899 boundary.During celebrations of Guyana's change to republic status, Venezuelan forces on Ankoko fired on Guyanese police and staged a border build-up. There was no retaliation.On the expiration of the Geneva agreement, the parties, with Britain concurring, approved the Protocol of Port-of-Spain by which they agreed to maintain the status quo for 12 years, after which, if still unresolved, the dispute would be submitted to international mediation. No agreement having been reached by December 9, 1982, Venezuela began strengthening military outposts in the disputed area, site of a potentially rich oil find. In March 1983 agreement was reached to refer the dispute to UNSYG Perez de Cuellar. Bilateral discussions resumed for a time in 1988.#gICBAlthough India in 1954 formally agreed to Chinese control of Tibet, Prime Minister Nehru complained that published Chinese maps showed as Chinese substantial border areas in the Northeast Frontier Agency (NFA) area and Ladakh.Peking protested the presence of Indian troops in contested areas. Further incidents evoked a Chinese denial that borders, including the McMahon Line, had ever been formalized. In the critical atmosphere following the 1959 Tibetan uprisings, Nehru disclosed Chinese intrusions and announced a military build-up. In June 1962 the 1954 Sino-Indian Agreement including Panchsheel (five principles of peace) was allowed to lapse.A skirmish between an Indian outpost and a Chinese patrol was followed by heavier attacks and further Chinese incursions. On October 26 India proclaimed a state of emergency. The US and UK sent arms, Moscow remained neutral. Mediation by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser having failed, six neutrals met at Colombo to prepare a joint approach. China was soon in a position to seal off Tibet on a line approximating prior claims.China announced a cease-fire. The Colombo Proposals did not lead to formal agreement. [During the 1965 India-Pakistan war, China revived the border issue [see INP]. After eight rounds of talks without agreement on India's claim to 14,500 square miles of land held by China in Ladakh, and China's claim to 34,000 square miles held by India, the two countries announced, at the end of Prime Minister Rajiv Ghandi's 1988 visit to China, the establishment of a joint working group to resolve the dispute. In July 1992 border trade was resumed after thirty years. In August 1995 it was agreed to pull back troops from four points on the north east border where rival troops had been only 50 yards apart. Both parties appeared willing to maintain the status quo without resolution of the border issues. In November 1996 the two countries agreed to mutual troop withdrawals and pledged mutual non-aggression. But Indian concern with Chinese arming of Pakistan was a major factor in deciding in May 1998 to conduct nuclear weapons tests aimed at deterring China and gaining world respect.]#}IMCA Federation of Malaysia, to include the Federation of Malaya, Singapore, and the British territories of Sarawak, Sabah, and Brunei on the predominantly Indonesian island of Borneo, was planned for 1963. President Sukarno of Indonesia was suspicious of plans for retaining British bases after federation. At the same time he was also in quest of prestige to avoid crises with his Army and with Indonesian Communists.As part of Indonesia's policy of "confrontation" Malaysia was termed hostile by Indonesia after two divisions were reported to have volunteered for training to assist a Brunei revolt.Small Indonesian bands infiltrated Sarawak. The Pan-Malay Manila Accord was signed in August, but the Federation came into being in September before a UN on-site survey was completed. The latter confirmed local support for the Federation, but Sukarno promptly affirmed his intention to "crush Malaysia" and extend military action to the mainland. In September 1964 a UNSC resolution following a Malaysian complaint was vetoed by the USSR. Early 1965 saw political turmoil preceding the August separation of Singapore from the Federation. Mainland incursions ceased, though Borneo raids continued.The aborted coup in Indonesia ended the confrontation, and hostilities were formally terminated at Bangkok on June 1 1966.#?INPAfter their inconclusive 1947-49 war over Kashmir [see KAS], both parties had accepted the principle of a plebescite there. Pakistan felt threatened by India's post-1962 arms buildup after confronting China over borders [see ICB], particularly when India withdrew its plebescite commitment. Following incidents along the UN-monitored "line of control" in early 1965 and armed skirmishes in the Rann of Kutch, India alleged Pakistani mobilization and ordered a military alert. A de facto cease fire in April was formalized on June 30. India later accepted arbitration and a larger UN observer force. Anti-Indian unrest in Kashmir grew.Pakistan infiltrated disguised troops into Kashmir to foment revolt, unsuccessfully. India crossed the cease-fire line to halt further raiders. Pakistan on September 1 attacked in Jammu to cut Indian communications. India responded September 6-8 with full-scale attacks in three sectors of West Pakistan. UNSC calls for a cease-fire, backed by US and UK arms cut-offs and a Chinese ultimatum, were successful.Truce violations and failure to withdraw triggered five UNSC appeals. A Soviet-sponsored agreement at Tashkent on January 10 1966 brought about a mutual force reduction in Kashmir. Despite the Simla Agreement of 1972 specifying peaceful resolution of outstanding issues, signed after the war over Bangladesh in 1971 [see BAN], and renewed diplomatic ties in 1976, relations deteriorated over nuclear and arms aid issues. A December 1985 summit reached agreement not to bomb each other's nuclear facilities, but the Indian offer of a no-war pact was withdrawn in 1986 when Pakistan failed to promise not to raise the Kashmir plebescite issue in world fora. By year's end 340,000 troops were lined along the frontier. On February 21, 1987 both agreed to a 70% withdrawal. In July 1988 Muslim militants in Kashmir began a violent campaign protesting economic, political and ethnic grievances. By January 1990 the upsurge in separatist fervor prompted India to resume direct rule and to threaten war to punish Pakistan for aiding the insurgents. Border clashes increased. On July 4 1991 the parties signed military security agreements aimed at preventing another war. But four years later the crisis had been revived by a split in the insurgency between those seeking independence and those seeking union with Pakistan under Islamic rule; by a parallel rise in Hindu extremism; and by the flow of weaponry left over from the Afghanistan conflict. [see AFG]. In May, 1997 the two prime ministers met in the Maldive Islands and agreed to put the past behind them, and agreed the following month in Islamabad to hold talks on Kashmir. The situation changed dramatically with installation in 1996 in India of a coalition containing the radical nationalist BJP party. In May 1998 India conducted tests of five nuclear devices, followed in a few days by Pakistani nuclear weapons tests. Both were roundly condemned internationally and sanctions imposed.#-fWIRIStrained Arab-Persian relations date from the Arab defeat of the Persians in Quadisiya in 637. The historic boundary along the Shatt-al-Arab waterway between Ottoman and Persian empires was established by the Ezerum treaty of 1847, and revised in 1914 and 1937 to give Iran right of passage. Iran declared the border treaty void in 1969 after Iraq presssed claims to the entire Shatt-al-Arab. Algeria helped negotiate a new treaty in 1975 fixing the boundary but tension continued. The Iranian Islamic Revolution in 1979 energized support for Shi'ite fundamentalists in Sunni majority-controlled Iraq. Rebellion against Persian rule had occurred in Iranian Khuzestan in 1924 and 1943, and the province had petitioned for incorporation into Iraq in 1946 and 1947 as "Arabistan."Iraqi President Saddam Hussein vowed to regain "Iraqi" territory after an assassination attempt on Iraqi vice-premier Tariq Aziz. Minor border clashes and Iran's support for Kurdish rebels in Iraq increased tensions. World disfavor of Iran's Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeni, his regime's apparent instability, and loss of US military supplies made the timing appear favorable.Reported Iranian border attacks preceded Iraq's invasion of oil-rich Khuzestan. Initial Iraqi successes were offset by an Iranian push into Iraq, aided by Israeli arms and human wave assaults. Iraq held firm with discreet Arab, US, and Soviet support, and with UN-confirmed use of chemical weapons. Iran ignored peace initiatives by Iraq, the UN, Arab League, PLO, and others, insisting on UN condemnation of the aggression and Hussein's replacement.The UNSC's resolution 598 of July 20, backed by superpower diplomacy, called for an end to the war. Iran remained intransigeant until military losses, plus US naval pressures in the Gulf made defeat inevitable. The UNSYG announced a cease-fire on August 8 to be monitored by a UN force, which the UNSC voted to create on August 9, to be followed by direct talks under UN auspices. Iraq balked at the proposed UN timetable unless Iran agreed to reopen the Shatt-al-Arab, blocked during the war.In the wake of Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in August, Saddam Hussein accepted all basic Iranian terms for settlement, including prisoner exchange and restoration of the mid-channel boundary in the Shatt-al-Arab.#:`LIRKDuring World War II Kurdish nationalism in Iraq acquired a formidable leader, Massoud Barzani, who went into exile in 1945 under Soviet protection. In 1958 the revolutionary regime of Gen. Abdul Karim Kassen invited him to Baghdad and permitted a Kurdish party, PDK, to operate.By arming Barzani followers, Kassem gained support against traditionalists while the Moscow link gave protection from Iraqi Nasserites (i.e. those approving Egyptian links to the USSR). Relations soured after Kurdish autonomy was rejected in July 1961 and Barzani returned to the Kurdish area.Barzani's forces took the offensive, strengthened by Army defections and PDK organizing skills. But arms were scarce and air attacks constant. On January 10 1963 Kassem offered amnesty but was deposed by a Baathist coup on February 8.In apparent concert with conspirators, Barzani declared a cease-fire and sought talks. As the Baathists moved against Nasserites, he rearmed and sought Arab support for Kurdish autonomy.The government rejected Kurdish demands and resumed the war. The tide turned against the Kurds but sporadic hostilities continued.Although a peace agreement was signed recognising Kurdish autonomy in areas with a Kurdish majority, it was never implemented. [When the Shah of Iran withdrew support after signing the Treaty of Algiers with Iraq in 1975, Kurdish guerrillas were overwhelmed by Iraqi firepower. When Iraq went to war with Iran in 1980 [see IRI], guerrilla activities increased. Iraqi repression included the use of chemical weapons in March 1988 which killed some 5,000 Kurdish civilians. The Gulf War in 1990-91 brought further Kurdish rebellion and oppression. The Western allies belatedly established international protection and instituted a "no-fly zone" to protect the Kurds from Iraqi air power.]#GsIWIJapanese wartime occupation of the oil-and rubber-rich strategically-located Dutch East Indies generated a nationalist movement including armed native militia, which proclaimed an independent Republic at war's end.The Republicans determined to resist Dutch attempted reassertion of control.Clashes with British and Dutch forces which had accepted the Japanese surrender began. Under US pressure, the Dutch agreed in principle to a federal partnership with the Republic, but then landed in force on Java after improved logistics permitted reestablishing control over the outer islands. A new liberal Dutch government changed policy in October 1946.A ceasefire was concluded and a month later the Linggadjati Agreement recognized de facto Republican control over Java and Sumatra within a federal state. Disagreement over interpretation ensued.The Dutch attacked, took control of productive areas of Java and Sumatra, and enforced an economic blockade elsewhere. Incomplete Dutch compliance with a UNSC cease-fire call prompted creation of a UN Good Offices Committee which negotiated the January 19 1948 Renville Agreement on a cease-fire.Conflicting interpretations of Renville coincided with Dutch formation of a federal government excluding the Republic, a conservative victory at the Hague, and a Communist-inspired intra-Republican upheaval from which moderate leadership emerged. Talks continued.The Dutch broke the Renville Agreement and captured the Republican capital airport at Jakarta plus half the Cabinet. World pressure and Republican successes in Java finally prompted unofficial [Van-Rojen--Roen] negotiations, which led the way to liberation of the capital, agreement on a United States of Indonesia and a cease-fire.Independence followed a Round Table Conference in the Hague.#XGKASWhen Great Britain granted independence to India, and Pakistan was subsequently created, the British offered the Hindu Maharajah of the predominantly Muslim "princely state" Jammu and Kashmir a choice of joining either India or Pakistan. No final decision was made by August 15 when British authority ceased.Groups of the Muslim "Free Kashmir" movement along with Pathan tribesmen invaded Kashmir. The Maharajah was assured of Indian aid in return for the formal accession of Kashmir to India, subject to a plebiscite when law and order allowed.Indian Army units entered Kashmir and penetrated deeply. On January 20 1948 the UNSC formed a Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP) to restore peace and order, followed by a plebiscite. Its delayed arrival prompted Pakistan to seek a more favorable cease-fire line by committing regular forces. The eventual result was military stalemate with India in control of Jammu and Pakistan of northern Kashmir.India and Pakistan agreed to a cease-fire. India rejected a UN arbitration plan and ignored the UNSC's demands for a plebiscite. The conflict continued with sporadic outbursts over the following decades. In June, 1997 the two prime ministers, meeting in Islamabad, agreed to hold talks on Kashmir. Relations deteriorated with installation of the radical nationalist BJP party in India in 1996, but there was renewed talk of negotiations over Kashmir following nuclear weapons tests by both countries in May, 1998 which produced an international uproar. [see INP and BAN]#KUIThe 1899 British-Kuwait agreement on British rule ended by mutual consent with Britain agreeing to provide aid on request. The reactions of other states were equivocal as oil-rich Kuwait's economic and political ties to Britain appeared unchanged. After Kuwait gained its independence on June 19 1961 President Abdul Karim Kassem of Iraq asserted a long-standing Iraqi claim to Kuwait on June 25.Emir Abdallah al-Salim Al Sabah declared a state of emergency and alerted his army. Despite indications that Iraq would pursue its claim peacefully, rumors of troop movements prompted the Sheikh to seek British military aid. British forces built up rapidly. In the UNSC (where the majority approach was vetoed) and then in the Arab League, the problem was seen as one of seeking British withdrawal rather than of Iraqi threats, now generally discounted. Failing Iraqi recognition, the Sheikh demanded and received an Arab protective force despite an Iraqi threat to withdraw from the League. By October 1961 a token Arab force had replaced the British, and the Sheikh had offered a percentage of oil royalties for Arab development. The threat of renewed British intervention remained during subsequent tensions on the issue.Although Iraq did not withdraw its claim, the new Baathist regime agreed to exchange ambassadors, and Kuwait was admitted to the UN. [On August 2 1990 Iraq under Saddam Hussein, declining mediation with Kuwait over contested oil fields on their joint border, invaded Kuwait and claimed it as Iraq's 19th province. The UNSC approved sanctions and on November 29 authorized member states to use "all necessary means" to achieve Iraqi withdrawal by January 15 1991. On February 24 a US-led coalition launched a massive ground assault against Iraqi forces. Four days later Iraq announced its readiness to accept all UNSC demands. The UN weapons inspection process was contentious, with charges of Iraqi concealment of stockpiles of biological weapons generating crises some of which involved the use of primarily US force. Allied support for enforcement dwindled, but Iraqi cooperation improved after direct intervention in a 1997 crisis by UNSYG Kofi Annan. In June, 1998 UN chief weapons inspector Richard Butler sounded optimistic that sanctions could soon be lifted, permitting normal Iraqi oil exports, but relations subsequently deteriorated.]#2LAONeutralist Premier Souvanna Phouma had succeeded by November 1957 in working with both the rightist faction and the communist Pathet Lao (PL) for a neutral Laos (sought by the 1954 Geneva Accords). The latter was undermined when, after a special election in May 1958 in which PL sympathizers won 9 of 21 contests, the rightists took power. The International Control Commission (ICC) meanwhile suspended operations.North Vietnamese forces, long behind Laotian and Cambodian guerrillas, penetrated 12 miles into Laos ostensibly to force ICC reactivation. The rightist government, over neutralist and PL parliamentary objections, renounced the Geneva Accords, making possible the acceptance of US military aid.Disagreement over incorporating 2 PL battalions into the Laotian army (as agreed in 1957) triggered protracted fighting. Charges of N. Vietnamese intervention and of Soviet complicity evoked Soviet and Chinese complaints of US Geneva violations. Both sides were armed from abroad. In April/May 1960, in elections widely considered fraudulent, rightists won the entire Assembly. On August 9 1960 neutralist rebels under Long Le restored Souvanna Phouma, but rightist attacks, allegedly aided by the US and Thailand, reinstated rightists under Boum Oum in December. In January 1961 the US alerted Pacific bases to an alleged "Communist invasion". On taking office President John F. Kennedy was warned by outgoing President Dwight D. Eisenhower that Laos would be a major crisis for him. Kennedy decided to seek a neutral solution. This was made possible by a joint UK-USSR call for a cease-fire, a reactivated ICC and a new Geneva conference. Despite a May agreement on a cease-fire, fighting continued during prolonged Geneva negotiations and while talks took place between Boun Oum (under US pressure to negotiate), Souvanna Phouma and PL leader Souphonouvong. On May 3 1962 a PL attack (which some charged was provoked) near the Chinese border led to a major US troop buildup in Thailand and renewed crisis. A 3-way coalition was installed on June 22.The new Cabinet proclaimed a cease-fire. Most US troops in Thailand were withdrawn. The Geneva Conference agreed on July 23 to Laotian neutrality and withdrawal of foreign forces. [In March 1963 sporadic fighting resumed. Clearly the PL had N. Vietnamese aid in occupying much of the northeast. A year later the PL had severed all ties with the neutralist government of Souvanna Phouma and in 1965 was officially renamed the Lao People's Liberation Army. Peace talks in 1972 and a cease-fire in 1973 preceded formation of a coalition government between neutralists and the PL. After the fall of Cambodia and S. Vietnam to communist insurgents, PL forces moved on the Laotian capital Vientiane. On December 2 1975 the monarchy was abolished, the coalition government terminated, and a People's Democratic Republic established. After the USSR collapsed Laos sought Western aid and in 1992 signed a treaty of friendship with Thailand. In 1997 Laos was admitted to ASEAN membership.]#\ E LBNReligious and political divisions [see LEB] were magnified by income inequities and the failure of the dominant Christians to update the 1932 census (the basis for the allocation of power) in favor of faster-growing Muslims. Egypt, Iraq and Libya increased support for Muslim factions, while the Maronites (largest Christian sect) anticipated US and Israeli support despite US denials. Anti-Israeli terrorist attacks from Lebanese bases increased after the 1970 PLO expulsion from Jordan. Israeli retaliations further alienated leftist Muslims from rightist Maronites and undermined governmental legitimacy, with 9 changes in 3 years.Full-scale civil war erupted between leftist Muslims (with PLO aid) and conservative Christians. Syrian pro-Christian forces imposed an October 1976 cease-fire, but conflict continued near the Israeli border. In 1977 Israel's Likud government increased support for its surrogate Phalangist Maronite militia, establishing a "security zone" in S.Lebanon despite the presence of UN peacekeeping force (UNIFIL). Warfare continued within Phalangist and Camille Chamoun's NLP groups on the right, and within Palestinian factions. Syrian troops clashed with all, and in 1979 Israeli and Syrian jets dueled. By mid-1981, 53 private armies were operating. US and other cease-fire efforts had fleeting impact. In June 1982 Israeli troops invaded, bombed Beirut and cut off food and water. A Western multinational force monitored the evacuation of the PLO in August. On September 14, the Maronite President-elect Bashir Gemayel was assassinated, whereupon right-wing Phalangist Christians, given access by the Israelis, massacred over 400 Palestinians remaining in the Sabra and Shatilla refugee camps. Bashir's brother Amin Gemayel was elected President. A second Western multinational force sent to Beirut failed to restore government authority. The US, seeking to protect 1000 US marines, bombarded Muslim positions. In 1984, after US and French contingents were bombed by pro-Iranian Shi'ites, US forces were withdrawn. Kidnappings of foreigners and Lebanese increased. Israeli troops withdrew in February 1985 (except from the security zone), and French troops in 1986. UNIFIL remained, now with Soviet support. Despite a peace agreement signed between the Druse, Amal and moderate Christian Forces, clashes continued.In September 1989, following one of many Arab League-sponsored cease-fires, 63 of the 73 surviving members of the 1972 Parliament met at Taif, Saudi Arabia, and in October agreed on a plan for a new constitution increasing Muslim representation and accepting a special Syrian relationship. On November 4 Christian General Michel Aoun, who had been interim prime minister, declared Parliament dissolved, but Elias Hrawi, also a Christian, was elected president under the Taif constitution.In October 1990 Hrawi with Syrian help forced Aoun and his forces to surrender, bringing the civil war to an end. [Hizbullah rocket attacks, alternating with Israeli air strikes and in March 1996 a substantial Israeli incursion, kept the situation fluid in the security zone. By mid-1998 Israel was increasingly fed up with continuing casualties, and co ntinued to hint at withdrawal in exchange for tranquility on its northern border. But Syria made it clear that the package must also include Israeli withdrawal from the Golan Heights, which Israel's Likud government rejected.]#LEBA 1943 National Covenant provided for political and religious balance in government and public institutions between Christians and Muslims, and Western and Arab cultures. President Camille Chamoun, a Maronite Christian, polarized these factions by keeping ties with Britain and France after Suez [see SUE] and accepting the Eisenhower Doctrine aimed at blocking Soviet penetration of the Middle East. Pro-Nasserites, i.e. those who approved Epypt's links with the USSR, formed a United National Front to oppose an expected unconstitutional Chamoun bid for reelection in 1958. The Front denied the validity of the government's victory in the June 1957 Parliamentary elections.Rising opposition led to riots and street fighting allegedly provoked by Egypt and Syria. The US sent arms. Tensions escalated after Egypt and Syria formed the United Arab Republic (UAR) in February 1958 and invited Lebanon to join.The Front called a general strike protesting assassination of a prominent leftist. Rioting spread from Tripoli to Beirut. Clashes became widespread. The Army Commander Fuad Chehab kept the Army relatively uncommitted. Chamoun sought Western aid and, in the Arab League and UNSC, alleged armed infiltration. The UNSC sent observers (UNOGIL) to prevent illegal movement of troops or arms into Lebanon. The July 14 Iraqi coup, which ousted the US-backed Hashemite monarchy, prompted the dispatch of US forces to defend US lives and Lebanese independence. The landings were peaceful and clearly the crisis had been exaggerated. On the domestic side the situation crisis eased as Chamoun made way for Fuad Chehab as President. On August 8 US troops began to leave as the UNGA took up the matter. New violence from the right began in September.A compromise Cabinet eased the crisis. US troops had left by October 25. The June 1960 elections reinstated the earlier political balance [see LCW].#Q8MAEThe Malayan Communist Party (MCP), supported primarily by the Chinese who equalled in number the conservative and elitist Malays (with the unorganized Indians a third, smaller racial group), provided the only effective resistance to the Japanese occupation but after the war focused on economic goals. Over Chinese and Indian opposition, a Federation of the former Malay protectorates, excluding Singapore, was formed by Britain in February 1948 as a step toward eventual self-government. This coincided with the new militant Soviet anti-imperialist line.The MCP, criticized for passivity at its Fourth Plenum, set a goal of independence following popular revolt.Violence and reprisals prompted a State of Emergency on June 18 1948. MCP strategy copied Communist Chinese campaigns, but its isolation minimized external support. Despite the availability of war-time weapons, insurgents achieved only random guerrilla attacks, and the Briggs Plan proved effective in denying them food supply.After 1949, warfare deteriorated into terrorism. 1952-56 negotiations led to full independence in 1957. Regarding the Malayan-British defense treaty as incompatible with independence, the MCP rejected amnesty offers. On July 31 1960, the Emergency was declared ended, but low-level conflict continued.In December 1989, with consensus that the insurgency had little chance of success and Chinese reluctance to be linked to it, the MCP formally disbanded its armed forces based in S. Thailand in exchange for fair treatment and free political participation.#7MEWTension between Israel and bordering states remained high after the 1970 ceasefires [see AIW]. Fearing Israeli reprisal for hijacking and hostage-taking by PLO guerrillas based in Jordan, King Hussein cracked down on the PLO in the so-called "Black September". Syria sent tanks into Jordan, but the Jordanian air force, with tacit US-Israeli support, stopped the invasion. Most of the PLO moved to Lebanon [see LBN]. Egyptian President Anwar Sadat, who replaced the deceased Gamel Abdel Nasser in October, sought Israeli withdrawal to the 1967 boundaries. When the US-USSR summit in 1972 produced no new Middle East plan, Sadat expelled Soviet advisors, freeing Egypt from Soviet pressures for restraint. Sadat, on November 14 1972, promised his party an attack on Israel within a year.Despite inferior strength, Syria and Egypt launched a joint surprise attack on Israel which lost 49 jets and 500 tanks and suffered 2,000 casualties. The USSR airlifted arms to Syria and Egypt, Jordan and Saudi Arabia providing minor assistance. As Israel's situation weakened, the US began a massive airlift. Israel crossed the Suez Canal October 15-16, threatening to isolate Egypt's 3rd Army Corps. Both the US and USSR pressed for a cease-fire, and Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger flew to Moscow, giving the Israelis time to consolidate. Ignoring an October 22 UN ceasefire resolution and US pressure, the Israelis pressed forward. On October 24 the USSR sent the US an ultimatum threatening unilateral intervention. In response Nixon/Kissinger placed American forces on worldwide alert. Sadat defused the situation the next day by agreeing to a UN peacekeeping force, UNEF II, and subsequently negotiated directly with Israel.Kissinger initiated shuttle diplomacy with Egypt, Syria and Israel, while excluding the USSR. Israel signed a disengagement agreement with Egypt on January 18 1974, and with Syria in May providing for a UN disengagement force on the Golan Heights (UNDOF). Sadat's dramatic visit to Jerusalem in November 1977, and President Jimmy Carter's success in brokering the Camp David Accords of September 1978 paved the way for the March 1979 Egyptian-Israeli treaty. [Egyptian withdrawal from the Sinai was completed in 1982. Title to Taba was resolved by arbitration in favor of Egypt in 1989 [see TAS]. Israel continued to occupy Syria's Golan Heights monitored by UNDOF, but Jordan signed a peace treaty with Israel in October 1994.]#wMOMMorocco's frontiers at its independence from France (1956) remained undetermined. The area of Morocco south of the Atlas Mountains is also the northern part of a unified nomadic social and economic region encompassing part of Algeria, all of Spanish Sahara, most of Mauritania (until 1960 a province of French West Africa), and northern Mali. Morocco laid claim to all but the last. Clashes between Moroccan irregulars -- the "Liberation Army" -- and French West African patrols occurred in 1957 and 1958. As Mauritania prepared for independence in 1960, Morocco protested to the UN that the area was an integral part of Morocco. Nevertheless, Mauritania was admitted to the UN in 1961.Some Moroccan-inspired incursions included one at Nema in 1962 which caused casualties. Morocco's King Hassan II boycotted the OAU founding conference in 1963 because the Mauritanian President attended. Mauritania won recognition from Algeria, Mali and Egypt.Tensions very gradually eased. In September 1969 King Hassan received Mauritanian President Moktar Ould Daddah at Rabat for the Islamic Summit Conference.Ambassadors were exchanged and in June a 20-year Treaty of Peace and Friendship was signed. [see WES]#YgMOSOne Moroccan goal at independence was to absorb the contiguous Spanish-held territories: 1) the 2 protectorate zones (of which the northern was promptly ceded on April 7 1956) 2) the Mediterranean principalities of Ceuta and Mellila, 3) Ifni, an enclave on the west coast and 4) the adjacent Spanish Sahara.Clashes between Moroccan nationalists and Spanish troops occurred in Ifni. Morocco asked Spain to negotiate a transfer of sovereignty. On October 16 Spain agreed to cede the southern protectorate zone (accomplished April 10 1958) but not Ifni. Spain claimed to have cleared Spanish Sahara of guerrillas, although clashes were reported in 1960 and 1961. UN pressure on Spain to decolonize Ifni and Spanish Sahara began in 1962. In 1963 Spain virtually relinquished the Ifni hinterland reportedly for assurances on strategic Ceuta and Mellila. Formal cession of Ifni occurred on June 30 1969. Violent flare-ups in June 1970 in Spanish Sahara prompted joint Moroccan, Algerian and Mauritanian plans -- all claimants in the territory -- to wrest it from Spanish control. [see WES]Spain turned administration of the Sahara over to Morocco and Mauretania [see WES].#z6e MOZThe overthrow in 1974 of dictator Antonio de Oliveira Salazar ended Portugal's centuries of colonial presence in Africa. Mozambique's Frelimo nationalist opposition declared independence as a Marxist-Leninist state in 1975. Portuguese colonists fled with virtually all the skills needed to rebuild a country devastated by decades of fighting. The pro-Soviet orientation, together with Frelimo's domination by Maconde groups in the north and its long-standing hostility toward the colonists and the white-minority-ruled Rhodesia and South Africa, underlay several sources of opposition to Frelimo.Frelimo's hostility to neighboring white minority governments was manifested in support for ZANLA (the Zimbabwean nationalist guerrillas in Rhodesia) and the ANC (African National Congress in S. Africa). Rhodesia arranged to consolidate opposition to the Frelimo by the Renamo (Mozambique national resistance) movement which conducted raids within Mozambique. Frelimo forces attacked Renamo strongholds within and outside Mozambique territory.The conflict escalated to full-scale guerrilla war. After Zimbabwean nationalists took control in 1980, Renamo relied primarily on South African support to wage a very successful campaign , so successful that on March 16 1984 Presidents Samora Machel (Frelimo) and P.W. Botha (South Africa) signed the Nkomati agreement halting support to the ANC on the one hand, and Renamo on the other. South Africa evidently continued to support Renamo. The level of hostility remained high with an estimated 100,000 killed from 1984-88 and 300,000 dead from starvation.The war's intensity war lessened. Frelimo's Marxist orientation with its Soviet support had waned, along with South African and US support for Renamo. Frelimo's draft constitution in July 1989 paved the way for a multiparty sytem. Direct negotiations between the leaders in July 1990, mediated by the Italian government and Catholic Church officials, achieved partial agreement on cease-fire in December, but covert support for Renamo continued from South African special forces, Kenya, Malawi, and right-wing interests in South Africa, Europe and the US. A peace agreement was finally signed on October 4 1992, and a cease-fire on October 16. A UN peacekeeping force of 7,500 arrived in mid-December to supervise demobilization, followed by 2400 international observers to supervise elections on October 27-28, 1994.The multi-party election results were certified as "free and fair" on November 19, a new assembly was installed on December 8 and President Joaquim Alberto Chissano(Frelimo) took office the following day.#xMUSThe boundaries of the British-oriented independent Sultanate of Muscat & Oman abutting Saudi Arabia and British-protected Trucial Sheikhdoms near the oil-rich Buraimi Oasis, had been undemarcated and disputed. In October 1955 British-officered Arab troops repelled Saudi Arabian forces in the Buraimi area, and in December 1955 quelled an independence-oriented "conspiracy" at Nizwa, capital of Oman, to the southeast.The leading Muslim cleric, the Imam of Oman, who had fled, returned to Nizwa in July 1957 with a force said to be armed and backed by Saudi Arabia. On July 22 the UK, responding to Sultan Sa'id bin Taimur's plea for help, warned rebels to leave Nizwa or face air attack.RAF jets began strafing Omani forts. In early August the air offensive intensified and UK ground forces were sent in. The Imam appealed to the US and USSR and the Arab League to the Bandung powers, to halt UK intervention. Nizwa fell on August 11, and the UNSC rejected the Oman complaint on August 20.The UK announced that resistance had ceased and withdrawal was proceeding. In 1959 the exiled Imam declared himself President of an independent Republic of Oman and denounced alleged continuing UK occupation and domination. Despite UK denials supported by the UNSYG's representative in 1963, the UNGA, in the anti-colonialist spirit of the times, supported his case.As nationalist pressures grew, the Sultan's son, Qabus bin Sa'id, seized power in a palace coup. Promising reform and neighborly cooperation, he changed the name to the Sultanate of Oman to emphasize its unity. [In succeeding years Oman reached agreements with Iran to protect its airspace, and with the US which was granted landing rights at a former British air base. In 1981 Qabus joined with the leaders of six neighboring states to form the Gulf Cooperation Council, and also convened a 59-member consultative National Council of appointed members. His Cabinet has consisted of personal aides. There are no political parties. Most opposition elements are represented in the Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman (PFLO)]# >^NAMSouth Africa took over Southwest Africa from Germany in 1915, and in 1920 the League of Nations awarded it to South Africa as a Class C mandate. Pretoria administered the territory as if part of segregated South Africa. In 1947 the United Nations withdrew the mandate in order to grant full independence. South Africa ignored this action and many such that followed. In tune with the liberation movement that swept Africa in the 1960s, the Southwest Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) was founded in 1961.SWAPO formed a military wing, the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN) in 1967. Despite military aid from the USSR and Cuba, SWAPO's isolation confined activities to political work and small-scale terrorism. In the 1970s SWAPO became increasingly Marxist in political complexion.Following Angola's independence from Portugal, Marxist MPLA provided SWAPO with territorial shelter and logistical support, making it possible for SWAPO to increase the number of raids from Angolan bases, countered by South African attacks into Angolan territory [see ANG and ACW]. By 1978 the rebels had 18,000 soldiers with aid from Cuban military "advisers". Due to the strategic and ideological affinity between the MPLA and SWAPO, the Angolan civil war and Namibian independence were inextricably linked, with SWAPO engaging UNITA forces as well as South African. The UN Namibian Independence resolution 435 of 1978 called for disengagement by both Cuban and South African forces, but neither complied. SWAPO successes waned during the 1980's until 1987 when Cuban forces, now numbering tens of thousands, directly engaged South African forces on an ever larger scale.The thaw in US-Soviet relations made possible UN mediation leading to the withdrawal of Cuban and South African troops from Angola, and to the implementation of UN resolution 435.With withdrawals essentially completed, with UN-supervised elections having resulted in a SWAPO win by an overwhelming margin, the independence of Namibia was celebrated on March 21 1990.#NCANew Caledonia, a French colony, includes indigenous Kanaks, European and other ethnic settlers. By 1900 Europeans owned some 90 per cent of the land with Kanaks confined to reservations. In 1946 such constraints ended and the Kanaks, now 45 percent, demanded independence. Europeans were opposed. In 1984 France legislated more self-government and a 1989 vote on self-determination. The Kanak Front de Liberation Nationale Kanak Socialiste (FLNKS) saw this as indefinite postponement of independence. The settlers' Rassemblement pour la Caledonie dans la Republique (RPCR) protested concessions to the Kanaks. FLNKS boycotted the 1984 election, built barricades and set up "liberated enclaves". Former Gaullist Minister Edgar Pisani, sent to investigate, recommended in January 1985 that New Caledonia be "independent and associated with France" following a referendum including all with 3-year residence. The Kanaks saw the voting rules as a settler veto, and the settlers also protested.Days later, the FLNKS Libyan-trained militant "minister of internal security", Eloi Machoro, was assassinated. 3,000 French troops arrived, followed on January 18 by Prime Minister Francois Mitterand who met with the factions. Regional elections in September 1985 gave the RCPR 25 of 48 seats in the territorial congress, but FLNKS won control of 3 of 4 regional councils, reflecting support outside Noumea, the capital. In late 1987 the Chirac government created an "executive council" with a settler majority. Conflict escalated on April 22 1988 when Kanaks, seeking to disrupt April 24 elections, launched attacks on police and settlers seeking refuge with them. French commandos storming Kanak strongholds caused more casualties. A new socialist French government lessened tensions and on June 26 1988 reached agreement with FLNKS and RCPR leaders. The Matignon Accord suspended the executive council for a year, followed by direct rule in July 1989 based on 3 relatively autonomous regions and, most controversially, a 1998 referendum on the territory's future with relatively inclusive voting rights. The French electorate approved, but the Chirac government claimed the option of refusal if returned to power. In May 1989 the moderate FLNK leader was assassinated and replaced by a member of the hardline pro-independence Socialist Party for Kanak Liberation (PALIKA). In September 1992 a Popular Congress of the Kanak People (Congress Populaire) formed to seek independence and revival of traditional customs.#$NCRAn attempt to prevent the installation of the President-elect of Costa Rica (CR) by a faction supported by Nicaraguan planes and officers, was put down by socialist Jose Figueres who became President. The faction's leader, T. Picado Michalski, was close to Nicaraguan temporary President Luis Somoza Debayle despite alleged communist support. During Figueres' brief tenure a rebel incursion from Nicaragua brought OAS involvement.With Figueres again President, relations with Nicaraguan President Anastasio Somoza Garcia were strained, each country charging the other with assassination plots. On January 9 1955 Figueres accused Somoza in the OAS of permitting "adventurers" to train openly in Nicaragua.A small airborne force of CR rebels commanded by Picado's son landed and seized the northern border town of Villa Quesada in Costa Rica. Despite denials, President Figueres charged Nicaraguan aggression and asked for OAS military aid. The town was recaptured by CR forces on January 12 after "strafing" by enemy aircraft. After an exchange of epithets, Somoza challenged Figueres to a duel on the border. Following an OAS recommendation of assistance, the US on January 16 sold fighter planes to Costa Rica.The OAS stationed observers on the borders and created a frontier buffer zone. On January 25 300 CR rebels crossed back into Nicaragua and were interned. Both countries asked the OAS to establish a peace commisssion to settle further disputes after then-US Vice-President Richard Nixon was engaged in conciliation.Agreement was reached on a 5-nation conciliation commission with free access to both countries to check the passage of armed terrorists. [In the early 1980's Costa Rica, burdened with hundreds of thousands of exiles from other Central American countries, charged anti-Sandinista Nicaraguan refugees with plotting to overthrow its government. Border incidents increased tensions until CR President Oscar Arias negotiated the Contadora regional peace plan for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1987 the Nicaraguan Sandinista government [see NIC] negotiated with the "contra" rebels for a cease-fire; it was subsequently voted out of office in UN-monitored elections.]#bMNIBAfter Nigerian independence in October 1960 racial, religious, and political rivalries created severe problems. Resentment of Northern domination led to an Eastern (Ibo) coup in January 1966, the break-up of the Federation, an army mutiny in January 1966 which reinstated a non-Muslim Northerner General Yakubu Gowon, northern riots leading to a virtual massacre of resident Ibos, and an upsurge of Eastern tribalism. Gowon announced a plan for a 12-state Nigeria on May 27. In April Easterners under Col. Odumegwu Ojukwu took control of federal services in their region.An independent Republic of Biafra was proclaimed. Gowon ordered immediate mobilization and economic sanctions to thwart secession, then implemented changes permitting more local autonomy.Federal troops attacked. OAU mediation efforts, to which the UN deferred, were unavailing. Throughout, Gowon refused negotiations unless the secession ended, while Ojukwu refused to negotiate without a cease-fire. Nigeria had support from all but four OAU members and received arms from the UK and USSR. Biafran arms came from Portugal, France, and reportedly South Africa and Rhodesia: both sides used foreign mercenaries. Civilian suffering led to an international relief effort. Peace moves, begun secretely in 1968, became official in October 1969.Biafra capitulated after losing its last airstrip.A formal surrender was signed whereby the Republic of Biafra ceased to exist.#CNICHaving opposed the Sandinista movement throughout the 1970s, the US at first tried to maintain relations when the movement took power in July 1979 and to support progressive change within the new government. The Carter administration disapproved of the Sandinista's links with Cuba, and their opposition to capitalism and liberal democracy expressed at the UN. But all aid was not suspended until, in the administration's last days (December 1980), Washington discovered that the Nicaraguan government was supplying arms to El Salvador rebels.In November 1981 President Ronald Reagan authorized creation of a force to interdict arms bound for El Salvador. Secretly, he also agreed to a covert war against the Sandinistas. The major beneficiary was the Nicaraguan Democratic Force (FDN), an existing band of former national guardsmen (under Gen. Anastasio Somoza) and recruits from rural nothern Nicaragua.In March 1982 CIA-trained anti-Sandinista commandos, operating from bases in Honduras, blew up two bridges in northern Nicaragua. Seeing this as part of a larger paramilitary operation, the Sandinistas declared a state of emergency and suspended most civil liberties. By 1983 the "Contra" army comprised 15,000 well-equipped fighters. The US had imposed some economic sanctions in 1981, and a total embargo on trade began on May 1 1985 that lasted until March 1990. The US also succeeded in blocking international aid and loans. The most intense fighting occurred in 1985-86 with no conclusive results. Regional leaders who met as the Contadora Group and later became the Group of Eight, successfully negotiated the Arias Treaty in August 1987 which created a framework for peaceful settlement. [see NCR]In internationally-monitored elections on February 25, 1990, the surprise winner was the US-supported UNO coalition led by Violeta Chamorro, which took office peacefully.#)RNIHThe border between Honduras and Nicaragua in the area known as the Mosquito Coast had been in dispute since a 1906 arbitral award was challenged by Nicaragua in 1912. Subsequent attempts at resolution failed. After Honduras created a new state, Gracias a Dios, in the border region, Nicaragua in 1957 claimed that some Nicaraguan territory had been included.50 Nicaraguan national guardsmen occupied Mocoron in the area claimed by both sides. On April 25 Honduras recalled its Ambassador and protested to the OAS.Five Honduran planes reportedly bombed Mocoron just prior to a cease-fire declaration pending OAS investigation. On May 4 Nicaragua charged further bombing and strafing. On May 8 Honduras charged a Nicaraguan attack in the Cifuentes region 150 miles to the southwest, also in the disputed area.An OAS plea for troop withdrawal was accepted. Both sides were persuaded to seek an ICJ judgment.The ICJ upheld the original arbitral award. Subsequently, through OAS-sponsored good offices, the boundary was demarcated.#}OGASomali-Ethiopian relations had calmed (see SEK), although border areas remained contestedSomali President Abdi Rashid Ali Shermarke was assassinated in a family feud. Maj.Gen. Siyad Barre led a successful military coup. Relations with the West deteriorated, while the USSR increased support in exchange for a naval base (Berbera). Facing domestic pressures, Siyad Barre, under the banner of "Greater Somalia", again talked of reclaiming areas in Ethiopia, Djibouti and Kenya where Somali nomads lived. Border clashes with Ethiopia increased. Somalia reportedly supported nomadic Somali rebels in Ethiopia through the 1970s. In 1973 the French relaxed their hold on Djibouti. In 1974 internal difficulties in Ethiopia led to the overthrow of Haile Selassie on September 12 by a Marxist-Leninist military coup. In 1976 Barrre formed a socialist-Islamic Revolutionary Party (SRSP), nationalized most enterprises and tried to settle Somali nomads.Territorial disputes increased, ties deteriorated. Following civil disruption and violence in Ethiopia, Somali troops on July 23 1977 crossed into the Ogaden province. Ethiopia received military aid from the USSR, Cuba and Libya. Heavy casualties were reported on both sides. In November 1977 Somalia expelled the Soviets and requested US and UK aid. The US refused all but civilian aid; the UK supplied military aid as well. OAU talks were sought but Somali delegates quit the talks. Ethiopia reportedly adopted a "scorched earth" policy (poisoning water, killing cattle, strafing settlements) against the Somali Abo Liberation Front (SALF). With Soviet aid, Ethiopia was able to reconquer the Ogaden by March 15 1978.Sporadic border squabbles continued. Despite OAU requests for border settlement, the issue remained unresolved. In May 1980 a Somali raid into the Ogaden was soon crushed. Somalia continued to support the Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF).Ethiopia, under Eritrean military pressures [see ETE], and Somalia, beset by its own civil war, signed a treaty in April 1988 ending their conflict.#PALDuring World War II previous British support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine, set forth in the 1917 Balfour Declaration, wavered in the face of Arab resentment and London's wish to deny Arab support to Nazi Germany during World War II, and subsequently to the USSR. Restrictions on Jewish immigration bred a militant Jewish underground army committed to smuggling in Nazism's victims, 100,000 of whom had remained after war's end in former prison camps. Britain, unable to reconcile Arab and Jewish historical, legal, and political claims in the Mandate it had been awarded by the League of Nations, and bogged down in a guerrilla war in Palestine, handed the problem to the UN.The UNGA approved the partition of Palestine into an Arab state and a Jewish state, with Jerusalem's status to be settled later. Arab states had threatened to counter partition by force if necessary, and the Jewish-British guerrilla war was superseded by mounting violence of the Arab population against the Jews. With UN failure either to placate the Arabs or enforce partition, Britain withdrew on May 14 1948 as the League of Nations Mandate expired and the State of Israel was proclaimed.Forces of Egypt, Transjordan (later called Jordan), Iraq, Syria and Lebanon entered the former territory of Palestine "to establish security." On May 29 both sides agreed to a 4-week truce supervised by a UN mediator. When hostilities resumed the Jews, armed from abroad, proved superior. On July 18 a general truce was reimposed and all but Egypt withdrew from the war. Violations on both sides continued with serious fighting recurring in October and December in the Negev. UN mediator Swedish Count Folke Bernadotte was assassinated in September by Israeli extremists.His successor UN official Ralph Bunche, an American, achieved an effective cease-fire early in January 1949. General armistice agreements were signed by Israel with Egypt on February 1949 and subsequently with each of the other belligerents. [See SIN, SUE, AIW and MEW.]# }PANNationalist sensitivities about the US Canal Zone Agreement granting ownership "in perpetuity," had been manifested since 1959 in various "flag" incidents. They were exacerbated by the failure of 1962 Presidential-level talks, apprehension over proposals for a new sea-level canal, contrasting living standards of American "Zonians" and Panamanians, and forthcoming Panamanian elections. The raising of a forbidden US flag by Zonian students led to a Panamanian student flag response on January 9. As the Panamanian students were leaving the Zone, disorders occurred, mobs of rioters poured in from Panama, and Zonal Police lost control.US troops, facing grenades, rifle fire and home-made bombs reportedly provided by Cuban-trained provocateurs, used gunfire and tear gas to clear the Zone. Casualties and damage from two days of violence were heavy. Panama broke diplomatic relations, charged armed aggression and demanded Canal Treaty revision. Aggression charges were heard in the UN and OAS.Agreement was reached to restore relations. New treaties drafted in 1967 were subsequently disowned by Panama.Treaties were signed transferring canal control to Panama by the year 2000. [In 1989 US forces invaded Panama to arrest President Manuel Noriega on drug charges.]#y PHHThe Philippine social and economic system generated substantial peasant disaffection.The Hukbalahap (Huk) guerrilla group was formed by the Philippine Communist (urban and Soviet-oriented) and Socialist (rural) Parties,originally to fight the Japanese in World War II, and subsequently to build political power. Having destroyed many landlords as well as Japanese, they aroused governmental and US suspicion. At war's end, they assumed control of central Luzon and sought parliamentary strength and redress of grievances enhanced by war-induced dislocations and corruption. After the 1946 election was lost by the Nationalist Party, the regime of President Manuel Roxas Y Acuna denied their seats to Huk leaders of the "Democratic Alliance."The Huks became Communist-dominated and turned to guerrilla warfare. Despite US materiel assistance to the government, Huk morale and success were high. In March 1948 the Huks were declared illegal. President Elpidio Quirino negotiated an amnesty which the Huk leadership accepted and then denounced. After the reportedly fraudulent elections of 1949, the Huks called for the overthrow of the government. Huk success increased in a period of government corruption until the Army took over from the police in 1950. US pressure for reform plus the promise of land reform and other programs of new Defense Minister Ramon Magsaysay, reduced the threat.The Huk military leader, Taruc, surrendered. [In the absence of both substantial land reform and elimination of all Huk bands, the threat increased again after the mid-1960's. Subsequently other communist groups pursued occasionally violent opposition tactics, as did a growing Muslim insurgency. President Ferdinand Marcos, reelected in 1969, in 1972 declared martial law, restored law and order, promoted social and economic reforms, and created a political machine that remained dominant after martial law was lifted in 1981, but in the absence of serious reforms a left-wing insurgency grew. Popular anger at excesses by Marcos and his wife Imelda including charges that he had stolen the February 1986 presidential election generated enormous street demonstration s and under US pressure the Marcoses went into exile and Corazon C. Aquino became president. Her Defense minister Fidel Ramos replaced her in May 1992. In 1996 he made an agreement that ended the long-running war between the government and Muslim separatists on the island of Mindanao.]#QUMWhen the Chinese Communists (PRC) gained control of mainland China in 1949 from the Nationalists, their attempts to take over the offshore islands failed and exiled Nationalist leader Gen. Chiang Kai-shek continued to exercise sovereignty over Taiwan and Quemoy-Matsu, plus the Tachens. When the Korean War began in June 1950 President Truman "leashed" Chiang but interposed the 7th Fleet in the Taiwan Straits, which enabled Chiang to fortify the offshore islands of Quemoy, Matsu and the Tachens. Although in 1953 the US withdrew its fleet from the Taiwan Straits, Chiang was assured of US aid if he was attacked.A major Chinese artillery barrage aimed at Quemoy brought the US 7th Fleet back to the Taiwan Straits. The PRC took over the Tachen Islands in February 1955 without US interference, but thereafter the US established bases on Taiwan and stated that the islands would be protected by the Nationalists with US aid (with hints of nuclear power). Despite the Warsaw talks which began on August 1955, major flare-ups occurred January 20-May 1956, June-July 1957 and August-September 1958. Each prompted a show of US force sufficient to ensure Communist failure, with the USSR, then still allied to the PRC, implicitly refusing to risk confrontation.On October 5, the Communists announced a one-week cease-fire, extended it two more weeks and then began shelling on odd days, gradually substituting propaganda for shells. [In 1996 a nine-month Chinese intimidation campaign intensified against Taiwan's efforts to secure a UN seat, establish diplomatic relations with other countries, and purchase US arms. As Taiwan prepared for its first-ever democratic Presidential elections on March 23, China organized large-scale war games and conducted missile tests in the Taiwan straits. Many Quemoy and Matsu residents evacuated. China threatened to use force if necessary to prevent the creation of two Chinas, or one China and one Taiwan. On March 11 the US ordered two battle groups to the Western Pacific, which were withdrawn after the election and the completion of the Chinese tests.]#ZSEKPrior to Somalian independence in July 1960 France and Italy, the powers administering territories inhabited by Somalis, failed to agree on fixed borders. Nomadic Somali tribesmen traditionally disregarded political boundaries. The constitution of the Somali Republic proclaimed the goal of a Greater Somalia.After independence, clashes between Ethiopian border guards and Somali tribesmen led to mutual border reinforcement. Somalia later encouraged secessionist moves in the Northern Frontier District (NFD) of Kenya prior to the latter's independence. Somalia broke relations with Britain when the latter decided to retain the NFD within Kenya, and signed agreements with the CPR to replace British trade, and with the Soviet Union for arms. The African Heads of State did not support the Somalian case, and thirteen days after its independence in December 1963 Kenya declared a state of emergency.Fighting broke out as Somalia accused Ethiopia of destroying border posts, charged armed aggression, declared a state of emergency and unsuccessfully sought UNSC and OAU emergency sessions. After appeals by the USSR, the US and the OAU, negotiations began in March.A cease-fire took effect. Under the supervision of a joint Ethiopian-Somalian Commission, troops withdrew from the border zone. Sporadic clashes with Somali tribesmen continued in Kenya and Ethiopia. Somalia remained committed to the goal of a Greater Somalia [see OGA].#SINThe 1948 hostilities [see PAL] following the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine ended with UN-supervised armistice agreements. When the British Middle East Command withdrew from the Suez area, fedayeen (Arab guerrilla) raids and Israeli reprisals intensified. Israel moved toward military action in the face of the Arab economic blockade, Egypt's Soviet-bloc arms deal of 1955, and US and British failure to give either security guarantees or arms assistance (provided chiefly by France until then). French and British determination to reverse Egypt's nationalization of the Suez Canal provided an opportunity to coordinate military planning, in secret arrangements that included Israel.Israel launched attacks aimed at both ends of the Canal and Sharm al Sheikh in the Straits of Tiran. In the UN, France and Britain issued an ultimatum demanding Egyptian and Israeli withdrawal to 10 miles from the Canal, followed on October 31 with somewhat half-hearted air and naval attacks against Egyptian airfields and in support of Israeli operations. By November 5, when a UN peace-keeping force (UNEF I) was created, Israel had achieved its immediate goals of destroying Egyptian Sinai positions, opening Elath in the Gulf of Aqaba, and damaging Arab prestige. (But France and the UK, under severe US pressure, had to abandon their goals including the Canal itself.) [see SUE]Israel accepted the UNGA's call for a cease-fire. Withdrawal was completed by March 8 1957 only after US and other assurances that the Tiran Strait would be kept open, and that UNEF would have responsibility in Gaza until a peace settlement. The subsequent failure to honor these assurances contributed to the 1967 June War. [see AIW and MEW]#[SOIRussian Middle East strategy traditionally aroused Persian suspicions. A 1921 treaty gave Russia the right to sent troops across the border into Iran if danger threatened from a third party. The 1941 British and Soviet wartime occupation treaty provided for troop withdrawal from Iran within 6 months of the war's end. The USSR joined the UK and US in the 1943 Teheran Declaration affirming Iran's independence.When World War II ended the Soviets withdrew only token units and sponsored rebellious outbreaks, particularly in Iran's northern province of Azerbaijan where the leftist Tudeh party was Communist-dominated.The Tudeh, with Soviet help, took temporary control of the Kurdish area oil center of Tabriz, and on December 12 proclaimed an autonomous Republic of Azerbaijan. Soviet troops obstructed Iranian moves against the rebels, encouraged Kurdish nationalism, and intimidated the population while officially professing innocence.Military activity ceased. Soviet premier Josef Stalin invoked the 1921 and 1943 treaties to justify continued Soviet presence despite UK and US compliance with the 1941 agreement, and, in the new UN's first crisis, a UNSC call for negotiations. UNSC debate and US unilateral pressures to comply, including an implied ultimatum, followed a Soviet build-up in Azerbaijan and on the Turkish border. On April 4 Iran and the USSR agreed on withdrawal and oil rights. The appointment of 3 Tudeh Cabinet members under Soviet pressure brought the return of British troops and sympathetic uprisings followed. Calm followed their purge from the Cabinet.Hostilities recurred as Iran reestablished control over Azerbaijan prior to elections.The Majlis, the Iranian parliament, did not ratify the Soviet oil agreement. Following elections that supported the government, the parliament in October 1947 nullified the Soviet oil agreement and in 1949 outlawed the Tudeh party.#LY SPBThe ethnically, linguistically distinct Basque provinces in northeast Spain and southwest France have sought independence over two centuries. Spanish dictator Francisco Franco's military in the mid-1930s exiled the autonomous Basque government and repressed political and cultural expression. Opposition groups included the PNV, or Basque Nationalist Party, founded in 1895, and the ETA, or Basque Homeland and Freedom, founded on July 31, 1959 after the PNV's failure to absorb Bilbao youth seeking since 1952 to raise Basque national consciousness.After a popular ETA activist Xabi Etxebarrieta was killed by police, the ETA in August 1968 assassinated a widely disliked police inspector. The Franco government put the entire Basque region under prolonged siege. Thousands were jailed, tortured, and exiled, culminating in the 1970 Burgos trial and imprisonment of over a dozen ETA leaders. The ETA acquired new recruits and a new leader, Eustakio Mendizabal. In December 1973 the ETA assassinated Spanish premier Luis Carrero Blanco. After Franco's death in 1975 a split occurred over strategy and tactics between a military wing (ETA-m) committed to armed struggle, and a politico-military wing (ETA-p-m) which was more conciliatory and anti-violent. In 1980, the post-Franco government granted limited autonomy to the Basque region, and by 1982 the pro-negotiation faction had foresworn violence, though not independence, in exchange for amnesty for imprisoned or exiled members. A regional Parliament was elected. But the ETA, increasingly Marxist-Leninist rather than nationalist, and the secret government death squads, kept tensions high. In the late 1980s France ceased offering asylum to guerrillas finding refuge among French Basques. All settlement efforts foundered on the issue of violence. A failed ETA attempt in April 1995 on the life of Prime Ministerial candidate Jose Aznar revealed declining popular support for terrorism. An ETA offer to end violence in return for independence and amnesty was denied. Following an attempt on the life of King Juan Carlos in August 1995, and the murders of two socialists in December and in February 1996, some 50,000 marched in Madrid in silence to protest. Meanwhile a Supreme Court investigation of official involvement in an undercover Interior Ministry "Anti-Terrorist Liberation Group" (GAL), operating since 1982 against Basque rebels, helped bring down the Gonzales government in March 1955. By February, 1997 with the conservative Aznar government in power, secret intelligence reports were publicized of deep government involvement in anti-ETA death squads. But by July, 1997, with the kidnapping and brutal murder of councilor Miguel Angel Blanco, opinion had decisively shifted. Enormous public demonstrations showed the country - including many Basques - fed up with ETA violence and terrorism.ETA announced an unconditional and indefinite ceasefire.# SPIPossession of two island archipelagos in the South China Sea (the Paracels some 200 miles southeast of Hainan, and the Spratlys 500 miles south of the Paracels) has long been disputed. China's claims date from the 15th century, Vietnam's from the 17th. Japan's defeat in WWII reignited sovereignty claims and placement of military garrisons. At stake are rich tuna and other migratory fishing grounds, geo-strategic basing locations and, since the early 1970's, potentially vast oil resources. During the 70's, the Philippines, Republic of China (Taiwan), Malaysia and Brunei claimed specific islands in the Spratly group, all but the latter installing garrisons. CPR (Chinese Peoples' Republic) claims became increasingly militant as speculation for oil (including Western exploration granted by the South Vietnamese) increased, and as geostrategic conditions changed with a declining US presence in Southeast Asia, and a perceived increase in the Soviet threat via then Soviet-supported Vietnam.In January 1974 CPR forces attacked Vietnamese garrisons in the Paracels, citing harassment of Chinese fishermen settled on the islands. The Vietnamese retreated south to the Spratlys while China increased its civilian and military presence in the Paracels. Sovereignty remained in dispute as China's consolidation of control shifted the focus of the dispute to the Spratlys. Occasional naval skirmishes broke a tense peace as all sides sought support for conflicting claims. In the 1980's , the Vietnamese lost ground when many countries, including the Soviet Union, refused to back its claims. In early 1988, a naval clash with Vietnam left China in control of 6 more islands and reefs for a total of nine. Diplomatic relations between China and Vietnam, broken for a decade, were resumed in 1991. In February 1992 China granted an oil exploration concession to a US company in an area also claimed by Vietnam, prompting ASEAN to call on all claimants to resolve the dispute peacefully. In April 1994, when Vietnamese gunboats escorted a Chinese research vessel from a disputed oil exploration region, China made no public comment. But later it built military structures on Mischief Island within the Philippines' 200-mile zone.China in April 1995 assured the US that its territorial claims were not meant to impede freedom of navigation or safe passage of ships and aircraft. In July the Philippines announced support for declaring the Spratlys a marine reserve, thereby blocking oil exploration, and in August agreed with China to reject the use of force in settling the dispute. In October China, Taiwan and ASEAN members (now including Vietnam) agreed to cooperate on navigation, shipping and communications and establish bilateal "codes of conduct" in the South China Sea. China meanwhile ratified the Law of the Sea Convention but asserted legally dubious baselines around the Paracels, announced new claims in May 1996, and refused to vacate Mischief Reef.#Wt&SRITensions between the predominantly Buddhist Singhalese majority and the predominantly Hindu Tamil groups in the east and north, barely 20 miles from India's own Tamil Nadu region, date from the Middle Ages. Under British rule so-called Jaffna Tamils and other minorities disproportionately represented the elites. Independence and elections in 1956 unleashed Singhalese chauvinism. Singhalese became the sole national language, the economy favored Singhalese business interests, and Tamils were purged from government. Disturbances escalated in the late 1960's.The radical Singhalese People's Liberation Front's (JVP) attempted coup was repressed at huge cost. Meanwhile the violent Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) engaged in terrorism and assassinations. Singhalese nationalism abated when Premier J.R.Jayewardene sought reconciliation.A deadly Tigers raid on a Jaffna army post in July 1983 sparked massive Singhalese rioting in Colombo, killing 1,000 and displacing 100,000. Tamil parliamentarians were expelled, Tamils flocked to LTTE and other rebel groups and incidents multiplied. By December 1985 the Tigers controlled Jaffna, Sri Lanka's northern capital. New leadership and a 1700 % defense budget increase transformed the army. In April 1987, after Tigers massacred 128 Singhalese, the army launched "Operation Liberation" against northern guerrillas. Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi's India, under Tamil Nadu pressure, sent 45,000 peacekeepers. A cease-fire was achieved in 1987.Promised considerable autonomy in the north and east, the LTTE surrendered much of its arsenal and agreed to Indian withdrawal. The JVP violently protested the concessions.The suicide of Tamils under arrest inflamed ethnic relations, and the LTTE renounced the July accord. Violence resumed.The rebels disarmed and accepted a cease-fire in June but India, not consulted, refused to acknowledge it. In mid-1990 India withdrew.The Tigers launched a bloody attack with substantial casualties, matched by continuing slaughter by the radical JVP of thousands of young Sinhalese. The President was assassinated by a Tamil suicide bomber on May 1, 1993, followed by othe r assassinations. The 1994 presidential election was won by Chandrika Kumaratunga who named her mother, Sirimavo Bandaranaike, to succeed her as prime minister and began peace talks with the Tamil rebels. In 1995 the government lifted the 1990 embargo, but in October rebels blew up 2 naval vessels and on December 5 government troops took control of Jaffna city. In retaliation a massive truck bomb devastated Colombo's financial district on January 31, 1996 and battles raged between the sides. In May 1996 government forces claimed to have reclaimed the northern Jaffna peninsula and launched a major offensive against the Tamil strongholds. The reform package that would give autonomy to the Tamils continued to be rejected by the Tigers and stalled by Mrs. Kuma ratunga's Sinhalese opponents, and in January 1997 the Tigers overran a stategic government base. While President Kumaratunga continued her 2-track policy of peace plus counter-attack, by 1998 the 14-year war had taken 80,000 lives.#eSTYItaly in 1948 amalgamated Bolzano Province, whose German-speaking majority had been assured a degree of autonomy by the 1946 Italian Peace Treaty, with Italy's Trentino Province. Austria charged discrimination, and agitation for more autonomy sparked disturbances in the late 1950's. On March 4 1959, at the UNGA, Austria charged Italian violation of the Treaty and endorsed a call by the local People's Party (SVP) -- a popular, strongly nationalistic group -- for an autonomous province. At the 1960 UNGA both agreed to negotiate, but talks deadlocked on January 27, 1961.Violence against the Italian installations in Bolzano and anti-Austrian unrest in Italy occurred until February 19 1961. As talks renewed in May and again in June, bombing incidents were ascribed to extremists including Austrian and German neo-Nazis seeking reunification with Austria. Italy refused to compromise unless Austria acted to close its border to infiltrators, and would accept only ICJ adjudication. Austria sought international mediation and guarantees for the region. Six weeks of violence with Italian casualties occurred in 1966 when agreement seemed close. On June 29 1967, the European Economic Community (EEC) prove it was not a base for activists.A Copenhagen agreement provided for reversing over a period of 4 years the merger of Bolzano with Trentino, renamed it South Tyrol, and provided greater autonomy with disputes to be referred to the ICJ.Austria formally acknowledged that Italy had fully carried out measures to protect the rights of the German-speaking minority.#SUERising Arab nationalism, led after 1952 by charismatic Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser, brought pressure for British withdrawal from its residual imperial position in the region, revision of the Suez Canal agreements and encouragement of Algerian independence. In 1955 Nasser negotiated Soviet bloc arms which arrived via Czechoslovakia. In 1956, when the US withdrew its Aswan Dam aid offer, Nasser nationalized the Canal.Britain and France, their economic and strategic interests menaced, planned contingent military action while negotiating under US pressure. UN talks in October gave some hope. But the US and UN underestimated British and French determination, in secret planning with Israel, to reverse Nasser's actions. When Israel attacked into the Sinai on October 29, Britain and France delivered an ultimatum in the UNSC demanding that Egypt and Israel withdraw 10 miles from the Canal.Citing the ultimatum, Britain launched air attacks against Egyptian airfields (restrained and belated because of mounting fissures within Britain) while France gave air and naval support to Israel. As the UN was approving its first peacekeeping force (UNEF I) in a Special Emergency Session of the UNGA, British and French assault troops attacked and moved up the Canal. In the face of Soviet threats to send "volunteers", intense US pressure and potentially crippling political and financial costs, Britain backed down and agreed to the proposed UN force. [see SIN]A cease-fire took effect. With the phased UNEF take-over, Britain and France completed withdrawal by December 23. British and French relations with the US and UN remained strained for some time.Differences over Canal control evaporated as Egypt successfully took over its management, to the surprise and chagrin of former British and French owners who forecast Egyptian incompetence. [see AIW and MEW]#~:SYTUS alarm at Soviet emergence after Suez [see SUE] as vocal champion of Arab nationalism increased when Syria's President visited Moscow in November 1956. Subsequent warnings of a massive Soviet arms build-up in Syria were denied by Damascus, which claimed Cold War neutrality and complained to the UNSYG of Turkish threats to its security. Both the Eisenhower Doctrine aimed at preventing Soviet expansion into the Middle East, and the April 1957 Jordanian crises over an alleged communist plot against the king, widened the gulf separating Syria from the US and Baghdad Pact members, notably Turkey.With pro-Soviet elements reportedly strengthened in Damascus, US officials were accused of a plot to overthrow the government and expelled. The US accused the USSR of seeking to take over Syria, and expedited arms shipments to strengthen Turkey in case Syria as a "victim of international communism" was "pushed into aggressive acts". The USSR pledged support to Syria and accused the US of deploying threatening troop concentrations on the Turkish border. On September 19 the US warned that Turkey faced military danger from the Soviet arms build-up in Syria, allegedly concerted with Soviet concentrations on Turkey's northern border, and some probably imaginary Soviet overflights. After an exchange of gunfire across the border on October 8 (arising out of a smuggling incident), Syria declared a state of emergency on October 16 which precipitated renewed charges by the western allied powers at the UN as well as threats and promises of support.Plans for a federal union of Syria with Egypt (reportedly to avert a communist coup), Arab League support of Syria, a Turkish pull-back and deft US and UNSYG diplomacy, defused the crisis although occasional border incidents continued.#@TASIn 1982, consistent with UN Resolution 242 and the 1978 Camp David Accords, Israel withdrew from almost all of the Sinai Peninsula which it had occupied since the 1967 Arab-Israeli war, but refused to cede to Egypt the Taba Strip, a small parcel of land along the Gulf of Aqaba. The Strip was the site of a 326-room resort hotel, popular with Israeli tourists, built by an Israeli entrepreneur in the early 1980's for $20 million. Israel claimed sovereignty over Taba, citing as justification the 1906 British boundary maps showing the land to be part of Turkish-controlled Palestine, not British-controlled Egypt. Egypt disputed Israel's claim, citing as justification the actual 1917 border demarcations (which put the Strip in Egyptian hands), pre-1967 sovereignty over the Strip, and the return of the Strip to Egypt after the 1956 Arab-Israeli war. Following the 1978 Camp David Accords, the two countries had vowed to resolve their remaining disputes through "negotiation, conciliation, or arbitration". Nevertheless, Egyptian-Israeli relations had cooled since the Accords, reaching a new low in 1982 following the Israeli invasion of Lebanon [see LCW] and bombing of Iraq's Osirak nuclear reactor. In early 1986, however, following a period of turmoil between the Labor and Likud parties over the issue, Israel agreed to send the dispute to binding international arbitration. The US encouraged both sides, each of which received massive amounts of US aid, to negotiate remaining details, and in early September the question was formally sent to arbitration. Two years later, the arbiters (French, Swiss and Swedish international lawyers plus one representative from each disputant country) ruled in favor of Egypt. Final negotiations settled details of the decision, most importantly Israeli access to Taba.Israel and Egypt signed an agreement that turned over the Taba Strip to Egypt. The agreement granted free Israeli access to the resort and permitted the use of Israeli water, power and currency in the Strip. Egypt purchased the Aviya Sonesta hotel resort for $38 million.#ATRIAfter the German collapse, Yugoslavia moved to take over the historic port city of Trieste at the tip of the Adriatic and the Istrian Peninsula, Italian since 1920. But it agreed to temporary Allied occupation of Trieste. The 1947 Italian Peace Treaty established a "free territory of Trieste" with US-UK forces administering the Northern Zone A, including the city, the Yugoslavs Southern Zone B. Prospects for permanence foundered on UNSC failure to agree on a governor. On May 20 1948, prior to critical Italian elections and Yugoslav Communist leader Marshal Tito's break with Moscow, the US, UK, and France proposed returning all of Trieste to Italy. In 1952 Italy was permitted to assume civil positions in Zone A, and Yugoslav proposals for settlement along ethnic lines were rejected.With each party fearing action by the other to seize disputed areas, the Italian Army and Fleet were placed on alert. Yugoslavia took no immediate countermeasures, but after a US-UK decision to withdraw in favor of Italy in Zone A was announced on October 8 1953, Belgrade threatened to send in troops if Italian forces entered. US-UK acceptance of possible partition quieted the situation and led to eventual agreement outside the UN.A Memorandum of Understanding was signed providing Italy with Zone A, including the city, with a small strip in the south to go to Yugoslavia. The latter would use the free port, and institute civil authority in Zone B.The two countries assumed control of their zones.#Wp  ULSIn 1169 Pope Adrian IV granted of overlordship of Ireland to Henry II of England. After conquest by Norman barons, Ireland was ruled as a military colony exploited for profit of crown and aristocracy. The Protestant Reformation took root in Britain after Henry VIII's break with Rome. Ireland followed the Catholic Counter-Reformation. The 1607 "flight of the earls" left Ulster devastated by war. James I granted the land to loyal barons who encouraged influx of Protestant settlers from nearby Scotland. In 1690 a French-Irish army aiming to restore James II was defeated by William I aided by Ulster supporters. Ulster became largely Protestant; the south remained a mostly Catholic peasantry ruled by Protestant lords. The 1800 Act of Union transferred governance to London. Ulster developed industrially; the south remained agricultural. The Potato Famine resulted in massive starvation and emigration. Revolutionary activities led to the 1916 Easter Rebellion and creation of the Republic of Ireland (Eire). At independence in 1921 Britain retained six Ulster counties.The Irish Free State, under British threat of war, accepted Dominion status but not partition, and civil war erupted. Anti-treaty forces (IRA) lost and became a clandestine terrorist unit. During the 1937 British abdication crisis, Ireland foreswore the crown but retained its British Commonwealth link until 1949. Britain insisted that Ulster's inclusion required consent of the Ulster Parliament, dominated by the (Protestant) Unionist Party and supported by Presbyterians (35% of the population) and the Church of Ireland (25%) with Catholics (35%) in opposition. Sporadic violence continued but relative stability was maintained until 1968.Heightened Catholic resentment of economic and political discrimination, marked by protests, led to widespread violence, initially by the (Protestant) UDA (Ulster Defense Association) and later the Provo IRA. In 1969 responding to Provo raids on British army posts on the Ulster border, Britain sent troops. In 1972 the Ulster Parliament was suspended and in 1973 Britain assumed direct rule. Extremist factional terrorism increased. Violence abated somewhat after British-Irish negotiations in 1975, but intensified in 1980 in the north and in Britain and continued despite efforts at power sharing. 1991 talks between the British and Irish governments foundered on mutual suspicions. Secret talks between Northern (Catholic) MP John Hume and Sinn Fein President Gerry Adams provided the basis for the British and Irish Prime Ministers to agree in December 1993 on principles to govern the reconciliation process.The IRA announced an unconditional cease-fire and intention to seek political solutions. Protestant paramilitary groups joined the cease-fire on October 13. Sinn Fein held out for direct negotiations without preconditions. An international commission headed by former US Senator Mitchell proposed a compromise formula. Britain ignored it and proposed special elections to test the strength of the parties' popular mandates.After a 17-month hiatus the IRA resumed hostilities with several deadly explosions in civilian targets in London and subsequently in Ulster. The British and Irish governments agreed on special elections and all-party negotiations without preconditions. In the background, Ireland was prospering while Ulster stagnated, Catholics were moving up the socio-economic ladder, while ordinary people were sick of the bloody no-win conflict.Late 1997 talks chaired by Mitchell and including Sinn Fein leader Adams and Ulster Unionist Party leader Trimble made progress, goaded by new British PM Blair and Irish PM Ahern. The April 10 "Good Friday settlement" gave Unionists an Ulster Assembly And ties to Britain so long as desired by a majority of Ulster voters. The nationalists got a cross-border link to Ireland through a North-South Council and a 70% voting requirement in the Assembly. On May 22 the power-sharing plan was confirmed in separate referenda.#FUSMAlluvial erosion and floods in 1864 and 1873 had changed the course of the Rio Grande at its deepest channel, which an 1853 treaty had marked as the US-Mexican border, transferring some 600 acres to El Paso, Texas. An 1884 convention agreed to ignore the more recent changes but failed to resolve the 1864 case. Mexico claimed the disputed "El Chamizal " tract in 1895. A 3-member tribunal (US, Mexico and a Canadian jurist) in June 1911 upheld the pre-1864 boundary. US rejection of the award on technicalities triggered widespread accusations in Mexico of bad faith and imperialism which later refused a 1913 US offer of territorial exchange. Internal stability deteriorated after the overthrow of Mexican President Diaz in 1911. US Marines were arrested at Tampico in 1914 and US troops occupied Vera Cruz for 7 months. Mexico, supporting Germany in WWI, broke off relations but war was narrowly averted. Pancho Villa's 1916 raid into New Mexico brought US incursions and a clash between US and Mexican troops at Carrizal, but the internal situation gradually stabilized. In 1925 the US rejected a Mexican proposal for arbitration of the Chamizal case by the Permanent Court of Justice at the Hague, and from 1927-54 a State Department proposal to recognize the 1911 award was blocked by Texas congressmen and the International Boundary and Water Commission. Mexico experienced similar domestic pressures. Background negotiations continued, but relations soured in 1938 when Mexican President Lazaro Cardenas expropriated US oil and land holdings. After WWII the US sought a new order. President Truman visited Mexico in 1947, the first summit since 1909, and supported the 1911 award. Promising negotiations between the two sides stagnated when the US administration changed. Growth in El Paso exacerbated the problem.In June 1962 President John F. Kennedy reopened the Chamizal talks with President Lopez in Mexico City and announced agreement on July 18, 1963, stating that the terms gave "effect in today's circumstances to the 1911 international arbitration award". The final settlement, signed August 29, favored the Mexican position but with some concessions to El Paso (including straightening 4.4 miles of the river and lining the bed with concrete so the border would stay put).#VENThe election of moderate Romulo Betancourt as President in December 1958 to succeed deposed dictator Martos Perez Jiminez led to a 3-party coalition which excluded the Communist Party. The regime faced serious economic and political difficulties.Young activists preached Cuban-style revolution at the September convention of Betancourt's Accion Democratica (AD) party. Many who were later expelled formed the Movement of the Revolutionary Left (MIR) and joined the Communist Party to plan revolution. The governing coalition weakened as some leftists resigned and rightist military conspiracies supported by dictator Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina of the Dominican Republic were exposed.Students staged 8 days of violent protest over the arrest of 3 MIR editors who had called for "popular revolution." Frequent street violence was augmented after January 1962 by urban and rural terrorism perpetrated by Urban Tactical Units trained by Cuban guerrillas. By late 1962 a clandestine army (FALN) had taken leadership. Swelling insurgency culminated in November 1963 in two days of mass terror aimed at preventing scheduled December elections.The voters gave a decisive majority to AD candidate Raul Leoni, plus control of both houses.Guerrilla activity gradually subsided in ensuing years, particularly after the Communist Party in 1967 abandoned violence and participated in the December 1968 elections. Twice-elected chief executive Carlos Andres Perez, who survived two attempted coups in 1992, in 1993 was removed by the Senate for alleged corruption and later convicted. Rafael Caldera Rodriguez, elected president in December 1993, instituted price controls to counter inflation and faced street riots. The economy turned sour in 1993 but the Caldera government survived.#WESA desert area of sparse populations, W. Sahara has one of the world's largest phosphate deposits, an Atlantic coastline, a deep-water port at Dahkla, and proximity to Gibraltar. In 1970 Morocco withdrew its claim to Mauretania [see MOM] but not to Spanish (Western) Sahara [see MOS]. The area's "Moorish" population asserted a counter-claim including part of Morocco. In 1973 the "Popular Front for the Liberation of Saquia el Hamra and Rio del Oro" (Polisario) was founded with Algerian and Mauretanian backing to seek independence from Spain. Spanish troops clashed with rebel saboteurs and tensions between Morocco and Algeria grew. In 1974 King Hassan II, courting domestic support, reasserted Morocco's claim. By 1975 Spanish-Moroccan clashes were reported. The International Court of Justice, backed by the UNGA rejected the claims of both countries. In October a UN mission found most Saharans wanting independence.King Hassan organized a "Green March" of 350,000 unarmed volunteers to claim Spanish Sahara. Spain averted confrontation by permitting joint Moroccan-Mauritanian administration despite Algerian and Polisario protests.Polisario and Moroccan troops clashed. Agreement between Morocco, Mauretania and Spain gave Mauretania the southern 1/3 and Morocco the rest, excluding Algeria. Although officially neutral, US continued aid to Morocco. In February 1976 Polisario claimed statehood for a Saharan Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) which was recognized by Algeria. Morocco severed relations. Mauretania withdrew its claim in 1979, Morocco claimed the whole territory, and a small French peacekeeping force moved to the Mauretanian border. SADR was admitted to the OAU in 1982 and ultimately recognized by 71 states. Spurning a proposed UN referendum, Morocco built a 900-mile almost impregnable wall enclosing 2/3 of the territory. Algeria and Morocco resumed diplomatic relations in May 1988. In August Polisario and Morocco accepted in principle a joint UN-OAU initiative for a cease-fire, a UN peacekeeping force and a UN-supervised referendum. In October 1989 no progress was reported while significant fighting continued.Agreement was reached on a temporary cease-fire. In June 1990 the UNSC unanimously approved the UN-OAU initiative, and the UNSYG sought an indefinite extension of the cease-fire, monitored by 230 UN observers sent in 1991. The UN referendum scheduled for January 1992 was postponed and the mandate of the UN forces extended to May, 1996. However, defections by guerrilla leaders and some thousand dissidents in 1992, and the movement of thousands of Moroccans into newly-built housing in the area, appeared to be gradually tilting the balance of opinion against independence. In 1997 former US Secretary of State James A. Baker III was appointed by UN SYG Kofi Annan to advise on peace plans for the conflict. The U.N. "Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara" in April 1998 clear ed the way for the long-deferred referendum by identifying eligible voters, but disagreements remained.#SWIRThe Indonesian War of Independence [see IWI] failed to resolve the status of West New Guinea (Irian Jaya), which remained under Dutch control pending Dutch-Indonesian negotiations. The formal dissolution of the Netherlands-Indonesian union took place in August 1954 without resolving the issue. The Dutch emphasized self-determination; Indonesian President Achmed Sukarno sought a UN settlement.Sukarno threatened to seize West New Guinea by force if the UN refused to take up his appeal. He began to receive substantial Soviet-bloc arms and political support. On August 17 1960 Indonesia broke relations with the Netherlands and began landing infiltrators. In February 1961 the Dutch proposed the Luns Plan, providing for self-determination under UN administration. Indonesia held out for Indonesian sovereignty.Hostilities began when Dutch police seized a band of infiltrators. The Luns Plan was defeated in the UN. In December, Sukarno ordered full mobilization and moved forces to South Celebes, but hostilities remained at a low level. In January 1962 with military costs rising and the local economy lacking viability, the Dutch dropped insistence on self-determination.Dutch and Indonesian negotiators signed an agreement, approved by the UNGA in September, to transfer the administration of West Irian from the Netherlands to the UN on October 1 1962 and to Indonesia on May 1 1963, with a plebiscite to follow in 1969.The UN Temporary Executive Authority (UNTEA) arrived. Indonesia assumed control on May 1, 1963, and the 1969 plebescite confirmed union with Indonesia. [The former Portuguese colony of East Timor on the tip of New Guinea was annexed by Indonesia in December 1975. Indonesian sovereignty is not recognized by the UN which considers Portugal the administering authority. Indonesian military action that left some 200 unarmed people dead in Dili, the capital, in November 1991 drew continuing international condemnation, and in 1996 two East Timor dissidents were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. In the aftermath of the 1998 Indonesian upheaval in which President Suharto was forced to resign his successor, B. J. Habibie, said he would consider a special status for East Timor but it would remain under Indonesian rule.]#lkYEMDetermined to oust Britain from Aden, the traditionalist Imam Ahmad, though challenged by modernizers, welcomed Russian and Egyptian advisers. His authority waned with his health. The anti-Royalist Egyptian role was manifest by January 1962. Al-Badr, who succeeded as Imam in September, was deposed and escaped to Saudi Arabia.The Imam returned to rally loyal northern tribes. The new Republican regime embarked on reforms. Egyptian troops arrived in October-November.Hostilities between Republicans and Royalists, epitomizing the prevalent pan-Arab factions, began in November with Egypt and Saudi Arabia as rival sponsors and suppliers. The latters' periodic attempts at moderating the conflict, plus UNYOM (4/1963-9/1964), succeeded in August 1965 in achieving a cease-fire as anti-Egyptian Republican elements (the Third Force) gained influence. [see ADY]The cease-fire agreement provided for a 1966 plebiscite after Egypt withdrew. But rivalry in pan-Arab affairs, increasing Soviet influence among Republicans, and Royalist rapprochement with anti-Egyptian Republicans, led to new Egyptian hostilities.Egypt began a determined effort to force a settlement, including gas warfare. After the Arab-Israeli War of 1967, however, the USSR gradually assumed Egypt's supplier role as "liberal" Republicans took power and Saudi Arabia prodded the Royalists to negotiate with them.Egyptian troops having been withdrawn by the end of 1967, discussions were eventually begun on a possible coalition to end the civil war. Some Royalists were given government posts. In July 1970 Saudi Arabia give formal recognition plus famine aid to the new government. In December 1970 a new constitution was promulgated, acceptable to both Royalists and Republicans. Political parties were banned in the hope of avoiding renewal of the feuds that had led to the civil war.Civil war ended when Saudi Arabia withheld further support to the Royalists, some of whom then joined the government. Saudi Arabia and Britain granted recognition in July.#jYJWIn 1923, during the years of British hegemony, the entire upper Jordan River was awarded to Palestine. The river arises from springs and intermittent streams located in southern Syria. For Jordan, the river is vital. Syria's attempts to change the status quo in 1948 resulted in 1949 in agreed demilitarized zones. [see PAL]One of the demilitarized zones became the site of a near-violent water-related dispute. With the intervention of the UN and US, violence was averted. In the early sixties, Syria and Jordan attempted to divert the river around Israel. Israeli soldiers intervened to prevent the diversion. A US mission failed to persuade Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Jordan to agree on a water-sharing formula covering the entire Jordan Rift Valley, and including a dam in Jordan. Water issues were at the root of the 1967 war during which Israel was able to gain military control of sections of the headwaters. [see AIW] US diplomacy in the early 1980's sought Israeli and Jordanian cooperation to support a Jordanian dam on the Yarmuk to be built on the boundary between Syria and Jordan. The initiative foundered in the absence of Syrian participation. The 1987 treaty between Syria and Jordan permitted Syria to construct small earth dams along streams feeding the Yarmuk river in return for Syrian support of the so-called Unity Dam. Agreement between Israel and Jordan foundered over the realization that Syria's diversion of water was much greater than expected and jeopardized the dam's feasibility. The probability that the new Palestinian authority would claim the right of countries downstream of aquifers to share a common resource with upstream countries underlined the need for a comprehensive solution.#;gT ZIMFrom 1889 the British South Africa Company ruled Rhodesia under royal charter. UK annexation in 1923 led to the 1953-63 federation with today's Malawi and Zambia. African nationalist organization, SRANC, was formed in 1957 and banned in 1959 as was its successor 1961 NDP despite UN protests. In 1962 Ian Smith's rightist Rhodesian Front won limited white elections and Rhodesia left the federation. Malawi and Zambia gained independence. In 1962, the NDP was replaced by the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) led by Joshua Nkomo. Anti-Nkomo fervor produced the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) in August 1963, organized by Ndabaningi Sithole, and led later by Robert Mugabe. Banned in 1964, ZANU and ZAPU established themselves in Zambia and Mozambique respectively. [see MOZ]In May 1965 Smith's government declared an emergency, and on November 11 unilaterally declared independence from Britain. Nkomo was banished without trial, and five nationalist leaders were executed over Queen Elizabeth's objections. The economy suffered under international sanctions but survived with South African help. The OAU called on Britain to use force against Smith. From April 25 1966 ZAPU and ZANU launched sporadic attacks against Rhodesian security forces and each other. In 1970 Smith declared Rhodesia a republic based on white supremacy.Protracted warfare caused thousands of deaths and vast population migrations among the nine million inhabitants, while the white population of 260,000 declined by 20 percent. Attempts at talks between 1974-78 were unsuccessful. A ZAPU-ZANU alliance, the Patriotic Front, formed in 1975 after Mozambique's independence, energized the conflict. Concerned Western powers and South Africa, feared communist intervention and sought modification of minority rule. Reforms in 1977-78, and multi-racial elections in 1979 brought victory to Bishop Muzorewa's United African National Council, rejected by Britain and the Patriotic Front.The US continued sanctions, OAU recognized the Patriotic Front, war escalated, and South African support waxed and waned.After several failed attempts in the late 1970s, the US and UK, convened an all-party conference in London, where in late 1979 a constitution was approved. A transition governor was appointed; a cease-fire was signed in December; and UN, US. and UK sanctions were lifted. Limited violence continued.In UK-supervised, multi-racial elections in February 1980, Mugabe's party won 57 seats, Nkomo's 20 and Muzorewa's 3. On April 18 Zimbabwe was declared independent with Mugabe Prime Minister of a moderate Marxist state. By the late 1980s the ruling party, now including ZAPU as well as ZANU, ceased to call itself Marxist.