Lateral Loads
WIND LOADS The most common lateral load is a wind load. The Eiffel Tower is one example of a building which has a structure that was designed to resist a high wind load. Wind against a building builds up a positive pressure on the windward side and a negative pressure (or suction) on the leeward side. Depending upon the shape of the structure it may also cause a negative pressure on the side walls or even the roof. The pressure on the walls and roof is not uniform, but varies across the surface. Winds can apply loads to structures from unexpected directions. Thus, a designer must be well aware of the dangers implied by this lateral load. The magnitude of the pressure that acts upon the surfaces is proportional to the square of the wind speed.
Wind loads vary around the world. Meteorological data collected by national weather services are one of the most reliable sources of wind data. Factors that effect the wind load include the geographic location, elevation, degree of exposure, relationship to nearby structures, building height and size, direction of prevailing winds, velocity of prevailing winds and positive or negative pressures due to architectural design features (atriums, entrances, or other openings). All of these factors are taken into account when the lateral loads on the facades are calculated. It is often necessary to examine more than one wind load case.
For this course, it will be assumed that wind loads, as well as the pressure they develop upon wall and roof elements, are static and uniform. They actually not only pound a structure with a constantly oscillating force, but also increase as a building increases in height. The loading of a tower can be very roughly approximated by an evenly distributed load. It is a vertical cantilever. The applet below allows you to investigate the variables which influence the structural behavior of a tall, thin tower. It does not represent actual methods of calculating the total wind force on a tall building. It is intended to demonstrate the interaction between the variables of the equations which govern the structural behavior.
EARTHQUAKE LOADS Earthquake loads are another lateral live load. They are very complex, uncertain, and potentially more damaging than wind loads. It is quite fortunate that they do not occur frequently. The earthquake creates ground movements that can be categorized as a "shake," "rattle," and a "roll." Every structure in an earthquake zone must be able to withstand all three of these loadings of different intensities. Although the ground under a structure may shift in any direction, only the horizontal components of this movement are usually considered critical in a structural analysis. It is assumed that a load-bearing structure which supports properly calculated design loads for vertical dead and live loads are adequate for the vertical component of the earthquake. The "static equivalent load" method is used to design most small and moderate-sized buildings.
The lateral load resisting systems for earthquake loads are similar to those for wind loads. Both are designed as if they are horizontally applied to the structural system. The wind load is considered to be more of a constant force while the earthquake load is almost instantaneous. The wind load is an external force, the magnitude of which depends upon the height of the building, the velocity of the wind and the amount of surface area that the wind "attacks." The magnitude earthquake load depends up the mass of the structure, the stiffness of the structural system and the acceleration of the surface of the earch. It can be seen that the application of these two types of loads is very different.
This movie is a representation of the movement of a free standing water tower in an earthquake. It can be seen that the as the ground moves, the initial tendency is for the water tower to remain in place. The shifting of the ground is so rapid that the tower cannot "keep up."
After a moment, the tower moves to catch up with the movement of the ground. The movement is actually an acceleratoin. From Newtonian Physics, it is know that an applied force=mass x acceleration. Thus, the force which is applied to the water tower depends upon the mass of the tower and the acceleration of the earth's surface.
The force in this last diagram may be thought of as the "equivalent static load" for which the structure would be designed. This idealized situation demonstrates a concept; it requires modification for actual buildings. These modifications account for building location, importance, soil type, and type of construction. This movement can also be seen in the following movie of lateral earth movement. Note how the mass slowly reacts to the movement of the earth. Eventually, the bending strength of the stem of the tower would be exceeded and it will fail.
Simulation of a water tower in an earthquake
It remains very difficult to imagine the destruction which can be wrought by an earthquake. The lessons learned from the Los Angeles Earthquake of 1994 helped structural designers change design strategies.
Fluid and Earth Pressure Loads Liquids produce horizontal loads in many structures. The horizontal pressure of a liquid increases linearly with depth and is proportional to the density of the liquid. This is similar for earth pressures. These last are a bit more complex in that the load due to earth pressure varies with its depth, any surcharge, the type of soil and its moisture content. The design live load for this soil pressure must not be less than that which would be caused by a fluid weighing 30 pcf.