The following are selected research achievements of MIT faculty over the last four decades:
1969: Ioannis V. Yannas begins work on developing artificial skin – a material used successfully to treat burn victims.
1970: David Baltimore reports the discovery of reverse transcriptase, an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of RNA to DNA. The advance, which led to a Nobel Prize for Baltimore in 1975, provided a new means for studying the structure and function of genes.
1973: Jerome Friedman and Henry Kendall, with Stanford colleague Richard Taylor, complete a series of experiments confirming the theory that protons and neutrons are made up of minute particles called quarks. The three received the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work.
1974: Samuel C.C. Ting, Ulrich Becker, and Min Chen discover the “J” particle. The discovery, which earned Ting the 1976 Nobel Prize in Physics, points to the existence of one of the six postulated types of quarks.
1975: Barbara Liskov and her students design the CLU programming language, an object-oriented language that helped form the underpinnings for languages like Java and C++. As a result of this work and other accomplishments, Liskov later wins the Turing Award, considered the Nobel Prize in computing.
1975–1982: Joel Moses develops the first extensive computerized program (MACSYMA) able to manipulate algebraic quantities and perform symbolic integration and differentiation.
1976: Har Gobind Khorana and his research team complete chemical synthesis of the first human-manufactured gene fully functional in a living cell. The culmination of 12 years’ work, it establishes the foundation for the biotechnology industry. Khorana won the 1968 Nobel Prize in Physiology/Medicine for other genetics work.
1977: Phillip Sharp discovers the split gene structure of higher organisms, changing the view of how genes arose during evolution. For this work, Sharp shared the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physiology/Medicine.
1977: Ronald Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman invent the first workable public key cryptographic system. The new code, which is based on the use of very large prime numbers, allows secret communication between any pair of users. Still unbroken, the code is in widespread use today.
1979: Robert Weinberg reports isolating and identifying the first human oncogene – an altered gene that causes the uncontrolled cell growth that leads to cancer.
1981: Alan Guth publishes the first satisfactory model of the universe’s development in the first 10-32 seconds after the Big Bang.
1982: Alan Davison discovers a new class of technetium compounds that leads to the development of the first diagnostic technetium drug for imaging the human heart.
1985: Susumu Tonegawa describes the structure of the gene for the receptors – “anchor molecules” – on the white blood cells called T lymphocytes, the immune system’s master cells. In 1987, Tonegawa receives the Nobel Prize in Physiology/Medicine for similar work on the immune system’s B cells.
1986: H. Robert Horvitz identifies the first two genes found to be responsible for the process of cell death, which is critical both for normal body development and for protection against autoimmune diseases, cancer and other disorders. Going on to make many more pioneering discoveries about the genetics of cell death, Horvitz shares the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physiology/Medicine for his work.
1988: Sallie Chisholm and associates report the discovery of a form of ocean plankton that may be the most abundant single species on earth.
1990: Julius Rebek, Jr. and associates create the first self-replicating synthetic molecule.
1990: Building on the discovery of the metathesis – the process of cutting carbon-carbon double bonds in half and constructing new ones – Richard Schrock devises a catalyst that greatly speeds up the reaction, consumes less energy and produces less waste. A process based on his discovery is now in widespread use for efficient and more environmentally friendly production of important pharmaceuticals, fuels, synthetic fibers and many other products. Schrock shares the 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his breakthrough.
1991: Cleveland heart doctors begin clinical trials of a laser catheter system for microsurgery on the arteries that is largely the work of Michael Feld and his MIT associates.
1993: H. Robert Horvitz, together with scientists at Massachusetts General Hospital, discover an association between a gene mutation and the inherited form of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig’s disease).
1993: David Housman joins colleagues at other institutions in announcing a successful end to the long search for the genetic defect linked with Huntington’s disease.
1993: Alexander Rich and post-doctoral fellow Shuguang Zhang report the discovery of a small protein fragment that spontaneously forms into membranes. This research will lead to advances in drug development, biomedical research, and the understanding of Alzheimer’s and other diseases.
1994: MIT engineers develop a robot that can “learn” exercises from a physical therapist, guide a patient through them, and – for the first time – record biomedical data on the patient’s condition and progress.
1995: Scientists at the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and MIT create a map of the human genome and begin the final phase of the Human Genome Project. This powerful map contains more than 15,000 distinct markers and covers virtually all of the human genome.
1996: A group of scientists at MIT’s Center for Learning and Memory, headed by Matthew Wilson and Nobel laureate Susumu Tonegawa, demonstrate with new genetic and multiple-cell monitoring technologies how animals form memory about new environments.
1997: MIT physicists create the first atom laser, a devise which is analogous to an optical laser but emits atoms instead of light. The resulting beam can be focused to a pinpoint or made to travel long distances with minimal spreading. The laser could has had a variety of applications in fundamental research and in industry.
1998: MIT biologists led by Leonard Guarente identify a mechanism of aging in yeast cells that suggests researchers may one day be able to intervene in, and possibly inhibit, the aging process in certain human cells.
1998: An interdisciplinary team of MIT researchers, led by Yoel Fink and Edwin L. Thomas, invent the “perfect mirror,” which offers radical new ways of directing and manipulating light. Potential applications range from a flexible light guide that can illuminate specific internal organs during surgery to new devices for optical communications.
1999: Michael Cima, Robert Langer, and graduate student John Santini report the first microchip that can store and release chemicals on demand. Among its potential applications is a “pharmacy” that could be swallowed or implanted under the skin and programmed to deliver precise drug dosages at specific times.
1999: Alexander Rich leads a team of researchers in the discovery that left-handed DNA (also known as Z-DNA) is critical for the creation of important brain chemicals. Having first produced Z-DNA synthetically in 1979, Rich succeeded in identifying it in nature in 1981. He also discovered its first biological role and received the National Medal of Science for this pioneering work in 1995.
2000: Scientists at the Whitehead/MIT Center for Genome Research and their collaborators announce the completion of the Human Genome Project. Providing about a third of all the sequences assembled, the Center was the single largest contributor to this international enterprise.
2000: Researchers develop a device that uses ultrasound to extract a number of important molecules noninvasively and painlessly through the skin. They expect that the first application will be a portable device for noninvasive glucose monitoring for diabetics.
2000: Researchers from the MIT Sloan School of Management launch the Social and Economic Explorations of Information Technology (SeeIT) Project, the first empirical study of the effects of information technology (IT) on organizational and work practices. Examining IT’s relationship to changes in these models, SeeIT is providing practical data for understanding and evaluating IT’s business and economic effects, which will enable us taking full advantage of its opportunities and better control its risks.
2001: In a step toward creating energy from sunlight as plants do, Daniel Nocera and a team of researchers invent a compound that, with the help of a catalyst and a zap of light, produces hydrogen.
2002: MIT researchers create the first acrobatic robotic bird – a small, highly agile helicopter for military use in mountain and urban combat.
2002-2005: Scientists at MIT, the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, and the Broad Institute complete the genomes of the mouse, the dog, and four strains of phytoplankton, photosynthetic organisms that are critical for the regulation of atmospheric carbon dioxide. They also identify the genes required to create a zebrafish embryo. In collaboration with scientists from other institutions, they map the genomes of chimpanzees, humans’ closest genetic relative, and the smallest known vertebrate, the puffer fish.
2003: MIT researchers develop a way to use RNA interference to silence genes. The new approach will allow scientists to shut down disease-causing genes, such as those involved in cancer, high cholesterol, type 1 diabetes, and rheumatoid arthritis. It can also be used to make cells immune to viral diseases such as AIDS.
2003: MIT scientists cool a sodium gas to the lowest temperature ever recorded – a half-a-billionth of a degree above absolute zero. Studying these ultra-low temperature gases will provide valuable insights into the basic physics of matter; and by facilitating the development of better atomic clocks and sensors for gravity and rotation, they also could lead to vast improvements in precision measurements.
2004: MIT’s Levitated Dipole Experiment (LDX), a collaboration among scientists at MIT and Columbia, generates a strong dipole magnetic field that enables them to experiment with plasma fusion, the source of energy that powers the sun and stars, with the goal of producing it on Earth. Because the hydrogen that fuels plasma fusion is practically limitless and the energy it produces is clean and doesn’t contribute to global warming, fusion power will be of enormous benefit to humankind and to earth systems in general.
2004: A team led by neuroscientist Mark Bear illuminates the molecular mechanisms underlying Fragile X Syndrome, and shows that it might be possible to develop drugs that treat the symptoms of this leading known inherited cause of mental retardation, whose effects range from mild learning disabilities to severe autism.
2004: Shuguang Zhang of MIT’s Center for Biomedical Engineering, Marc A. Baldo, assistant professor of electric engineering and computer science, and recent graduate Patrick Kiley, first figure out how to stabilize spinach proteins – which, like all plants, produce energy when exposed to light – so they can survive without water and salt. Then, they devise a way to attach them to a piece of glass coated with a thin layer of gold. The resulting spinach-based solar cell, the world’s first solid-state photosynthetic solar cell, has the potential to power laptops and cell phones with sunlight.
2005: MIT physicists, led by Nobel laureate Wolfgang Ketterle, create a new type of matter, a gas of atoms that shows high-temperature superfluidity.
2005: Vladimir Bulovic, professor of electrical engineering and computer science, and Tim Swager, professor of chemistry, develop lasing sensors based upon a semiconducting polymer that is able to detect the presence of TNT vapor subparts per billion concentrations.
2006: A team of MIT researchers led by Angela Belcher, Paula Hammond, and Yet-Ming Chiang genetically alter viruses to create ultra-small lithium ion batteries. The altered viruses collect cobalt oxide and gold to create an anode, one of the charged ends of a battery.
2006: MIT launches the MIT Energy Initiative (MITEI) to address world energy problems. Led by Ernest J. Moniz and Robert C. Armstrong, the MITEI coordinates energy research, education, campus energy management, and outreach activities across the Institute.
2006: Prof. Marin Soljačić and his colleagues have developed a new form of wireless power transmission they call WiTricity. WiTricity is based on strongly coupled magnetic resonance and can be used to transfer power with high efficiency over distances of a few meters. This advance is being commercialized and could be used to wirelessly recharge laptop computers, cell phones and other devices. For more information, see www.witricity.com
2007: David H. Koch gives MIT $100 million to create the David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research. The Institute, scheduled to open in 2010, will bring together molecular geneticists, cell biologists, and engineers in a unique multi-disciplined approach toward cancer research.
2007: Rudolf Jaenisch, a Member of the Whitehead Institute of Biomedical Research, conducts the first proof-of-principle experiment of the therapeutic potential of so-called induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells), using iPS cells reprogrammed from mouse skin cells to cure a mouse model of human sickle-cell anemia. Jaenisch would shortly thereafter use a similar approach to treat a model of Parkinsons disease in rats.
2007: Tim Jamison, Professor of Chemistry, discovers that cascades of epoxide-opening reactions that were long thought to be impossible can very rapidly assemble the Red Tide marine toxins when they are induced by, simply, water. Such processes may be emulating how these toxins are made in nature and thus may lead to a better understanding of what causes devastating Red Tide phenomena. These methods also open up a environmentally green synthesis of new classes of complex highly biologically active compounds.
2007: MIT mathematicians form part of a group of 18 mathematicians from the U.S. and Europe that maps one of the the most complicated structures ever studied: the exceptional Lie group E8. The “answer” to the calculation, if written, would cover an area the size of Manhattan. The resulting atlas has applications in the fields of string theory and geometry.
2008: Mriganka Sur’s laboratory discovers that astrocytes, star-shaped cells in the brain that are as numerous as neurons, form the basis for functional brain imaging. Using ultra high-resolution imaging in the intact brain, they demonstrate that astrocytes regulate blood flow to active brain regions, by linking neurons to brain capillaries.
2008: A team led by Marc A. Baldo designs a solar concentrator that focuses light at the edges of a solar power cell. The technology can increase the efficiency of solar-panels by up to 50 percent, substantially reducing the cost of solar electricity.
2008: Daniel Nocera creates a chemical catalyst that hurdles one of the obstacles to widespread use of solar power — the diffi culty of storing energy from the sun. The ca talyst, which is cheap and easy to make, uses the energy from sunlight to separate the hydrogen and oxygen molecules in water. The hydrogen can then be burned, or used to power an electric fuel cell.
2009: A team of MIT researchers led by Angela Belcher reports that it was able to genetically engineer viruses to produce both the positively and negatively charged ends of a lithium ion battery. The battery has the same energy capacity as those being considered for use in hybrid cars, but is produced using a cheaper, less environmentally hazardous process. MIT President Susan Hockfield presents a prototype battery to President Barack Obama at a press briefing at the White House.
2009: Researchers at MIT’s Picower Institute for Learning and Memory show for the first time that multiple, interacting genetic risk factors may influence the severity of autism symptoms. The finding could lead to therapies and diagnostic tools that target the interacting genes.
2009: Professor Gerbrand Ceder and graduate student Byoungwoo Kang develop a new way to manufacture the material used in lithium ion batteries that allows ultrafast charging and discharging. The new method creates a surface structure that allows lithium ions to move rapidly around the outside of the battery. Batteries built using the new method could take seconds, rather than the now standard hours, to charge.
2009: As neuroscience progresses rapidly toward an understanding of basic mechanisms of neural and synapse function, MIT neuroscientists are discovering the mechanisms underlying brain discorders and diseases. Li-Huei Tsai’s laboratory describes mechanisms that underlie Alzheimer’s disease, and propose that inhibition of histone deacetylases is therapeutic for degenerative discorders of learning and memory. Her laboratory also discovers the mechanisms of action of the gene Disrupted-in-Schizophrenia 1 (DISC1), and demonstrates why drugs such as lithium are effective in certain instances of schizophrenia. This research opens up pathways to discovering novel classes of drugs for devastating neuropsychiatric conditions.