From
WRITING RESEARCH PAPERS IN BIOLOGY:
An introduction to structure and style
Wade B. Worthen,
Biology Dept.,
Furman University
The orginal document is at
http://www.furman.edu/~worthen/writedoc.htm
The following list of commonly misused words was initially prepared by the Iowa Experiment Station Publications at Iowa State University, and was modified by the editors of the Journal of Mammalogy.
ABOVE - (the above method, as mentioned above) - often used
in reference to something preceding, but not
necessarily above; a loose reference, convenient to
writers but not for readers. Also, remember that if
something was mentioned previously, to do so again is
redundant.
ACCURATE - (an accurate estimate) - accurate implies
complete freedom from error or absolute exactness. An
estimate is an approximation. Try "a reliable
estimate."
AFFECT, EFFECT - Affect is a verb that means to influence.
Effect, as a verb, means to bring about; as a noun,
effect means result.
ALIQUOT - aliquot means "contained an exact number of times
in another." Commonly misused to mean subsample.
ALL OF, BOTH OF - Just 'all' or 'both' will suffice.
ALSO SEE - (also see Jones 1950) - Often unnecessary.
ALTERNATE, ALTERNATIVE - alternate implies occurring in
succession or every other one; alternative implies a
choice among two or more incompatible objects,
situations, or courses of action.
AMONG - used when comparing more than two items.
AND/OR - use one or the other.
AND THEN - use one or the other.
APPARENTLY, APPARENT - means obviously, clearly, plainly
evident, seemingly, ostensibly and observably.
Consider using one of these more specific terms.
APPEAR - not synonymous with seems. He always appears on
the scene, but never seems to know what to do.
AS - do not use to mean because, or inasmuch as.
AS WELL AS - =and.
AT THE PRESENT TIME, AT THIS POINT IN TIME - =now.
BELOW - (see 'above'; direction does not change ambiguity).
BETWEEN - used when comparing only two items.
BY MEANS OF - just 'by'.
CARRIED OUT - colloquial; use 'conducted', 'performed' or
'was studied'.
CASE - if necessary, use 'in this instance'.
CHECKED - (The traps were checked). imprecise. use
'examined' or another more precise word.
COMPARE WITH, COMPARE TO - 'compare with' means to examine
differences and similarities; 'compare to' means to
represent as similar. Usually, one compares with or
contrasts to.
COMPRISE - means to contain or include, not constitute.
"The whole comprises the parts, the parts do not
comprise the whole."
DATA - plural. "These data, data were, too few data."
DIFFER FROM, DIFFER WITH - One thing differs from another,
although you may differ with a colleague.
DIFFERENT THAN - never! always DIFFERENT FROM.
DUE TO - implies causality when only a relationship may be
intended. Try 'related to' or, if causality is
intended, 'because of'.
DURING THE COURSE OF, IN THE COURSE OF - just 'during' and
'in' will usually suffice.
EITHER...OR, NEITHER...NOR - apply to no more than two items
or categories; similarly, former and latter refer to
the first and last of only two items or categories.
EQUALLY AS GOOD, EQUALLY AS GOOD AS - 'equally good'.
ETC. - avoid entirely!
FELT - (it was felt that...) - One feels cloth, but believes
ideas.
GIVEN - (at a given time) - fixed, specified or specific are
more precise. Given has numerous meanings.
HIGH(ER), LOW(ER) - Commonly used imprecisely or ambiguously
for greater, less, larger, smaller, more, or fewer.
HOWEVER - do not use with another conjunction at the
beginning of a sentence or independent clause
('However, because...' or 'However, since...').
IN FACT, AS A MATTER OF FACT - usage tends to weaken
preceding and subsequent statements by implying that
they might be less than factual. If a lead word is
needed, try 'indeed'.
IN ORDER TO - 'To' will suffice.
IN VIEW OF THE FACT THAT - 'because'.
INTERESTING, INTERESTING TO NOTE - presumption; let the
reader decide what is interesting.
IRREGARDLESS - no such word! Use regardless or
irrespective.
IT SHOULD BE MENTIONED, NOTED, POINTED OUT, EMPHASIZED -
delete completely and make the point emphatically!
IT WAS FOUND, DETERMINED, DECIDED - delete, and state
observation declaratively.
LESS(ER), FEW(ER) - 'less' refers to quantity, 'few' refers
to number.
NON - a prefix, usually not hyphenated. Avoid overuse.
'Non' defines things negatively and is not descriptive
of what they are. Do not use as a substitute for
established prefixes or where 'not...' will serve.
(incorrect, unreliable, not reliable).
ONCE, WHEN - avoid the use of 'once' for 'when', as 'once'
can mean: one time, formerly, simultaneously, and
immediately.
OUT, IN - (...14 out of 17; to find out if) - in most
instances, these can be omitted without altering
meaning.
PARTIALLY, PARTLY - 'partially' implies bias in favor of one
or the other. Partly is more precise when portion or
proportion is meant.
PERCENT, PERCENTAGE - use percent (%) with numbers, use
percentage in reference to proportion expressed in
hundredths.
PREDOMINATE, PREDOMINANT - predominate is a verb,
predominant is an adjective. The adverb is
predominantly, not predominately.
PREVALENCE, INCIDENCE - prevalence is the number per unit of
population at a specific time ( 23 per 1000 individuals
in 1989). Incidence is number in a population per unit
time (23 cases per year).
PRIOR TO, PREVIOUS TO - adjectives that modify nouns; prior
or previous events. Replace 'prior to' or 'previous to'
with 'before'.
PROVEN - be careful of this word; rarely is anything proven
in science. We test hypotheses and sometimes fail to
reject one, but this is not proof.
PROVIDED, PROVIDING - 'provided that' is a conjunction;
providing is the participle.
RESPECTIVE, RESPECTIVELY - omit if possible.
SAID - (Jones (1978) said that...) - use wrote, noted
suggested or some other term, as nothing was 'said'.
SINCE - denotes a relationship in time. Do not use as a
synonym for because.
SMALL IN SIZE, RECTANGULAR IN SHAPE, GREEN IN COLOR -
redundant in repetition.
TAXA AND VERB AGREEMENT - species and subspecies take
singular verbs whereas genera and higher taxa take
plural verbs. Peromyscus maniculatus is common in
northern Illinois. Peromyscus are widely distributed in
North America.
THAT, WHICH - two words that can help, when needed, to make
intended meanings and relationships unmistakable, which
often is important in scientific writing. If the
clause can be omitted without leaving the modified noun
incomplete, use which and enclose the clause within
commas or parentheses; otherwise use that.
THIS, THESE - commonly used to begin sentences when the
antecedents to which they refer are unclear.
'Elephants, whales, and bats are mammals although bats
fly like birds. These animals are endothermic.'
Mammals? Birds? Mammals and Birds?
TO BE - (the differences were found to be significant) -
frequently unnecessary.
TO SEE - replace with 'to determine' or another more precise
term.
TOTAL - (a total of ten squirrels were observed) - usually
superfluous.
UTILIZE, UTILIZATION - use!
VARYING, VARIOUS, DIFFERENT, DIFFERING - commonly misused as
synonyms. Varying amounts or differing conditions
imply individually changing amounts or conditions
rather than a selection of various amounts or different
conditions.
VERY, QUITE, CONSIDERABLE, SOMEWHAT - avoid modifiers that
impart indefinite measure. 'A very large bear' is as
undefined in size as a 'large bear'.
VIABLE ALTERNATIVE - it would not be an alternative if it
were not viable.
WHERE - implies a locality; do not use as a synonym for 'in
which'.