Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Sloan School of Management
Kathleen Marshall Park
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Massachusetts Institute of Technology |
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Kathleen Marshall Park |
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Beijing |
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I am a graduate of the MBA and PhD programs of the MIT Sloan School of Management at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. My MBA program specialization was in strategy and international management (Global Economics and Management Group), and my PhD program specialization was in organization studies (Organization Studies Group). For my doctoral thesis research, I conducted a project exploring financial, strategic, and cultural factors in the global market for corporate control. In consultation with my dissertation committee and working with a team of undergraduate research assistants funded through the MIT Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program (UROP) and the Cambridge-MIT Institute (CMI, an alliance between Cambridge University in the United Kingdom and MIT in the United States), I investigated financial, strategic, and cultural factors in the 50 largest domestic and the 50 largest international M&A deals of the 1993-2000 merger wave. The research involved collecting data on a variety of firm, merger, and top management characteristics affecting the process and performance of the transactions. Parallel to the construction of the mega-mergers database, I interviewed CEO architects of very large M&A deals. The interview data address the neglected issues of leadership in massive mergers and motivations as expressed directly by the chief executives. Key findings concern the critical importance of the CEO leadership factor, the CEO motive of achieving firm-level metamorphosis through major mergers, and the transformative yet sustaining effect of major mergers on CEO careers. The description of my dissertation The CEO-Merger Connection: A Top Leadership Perspective on Large Intercorporate Combinations gives details. For my postdoctoral research, I have been studying the conjunction of mergers and acquisitions, CEO leadership, and international executive careers. My research interests span mergers and acquisitions, international strategic alliances, leadership, senior executive careers, and multinational management teams. I am also a Fellow of the Corporate Law and Accountability Research Group on the Faculty of Business and Economics at Monash University in Melbourne, Australia. This website provides further information on my ongoing research.
This paper applies the new concept of dyadic relative status (the status of an individual specifically in relation to a partner) to explore the seldom examined postacquisition departures of acquiring chief executives in conjunction with the more frequently examined postacquisition departures of their target counterparts.
When a CEO designs and participates in a major M&A deal, does the personally lucrative but often organizationally turbulent postacquisition milieu signify a career finale or merely the prelude to a second act, to the continuity of professional life inside or outside the merged firm?
This paper examines top leadership rewards in mergers and acquisitions from a multilevel perspective using sociological and economic theories of various forms of capital and organizational and economic theories of merger motives.
How do CEO characteristics relate to alliance investment decisions? Is there a relationship between a change in CEO and a change in corporate alliance and collaboration strategy? More generally, how do changes in leadership relate to changes in strategy—and how do changes in strategy affect the extant leadership or trigger leadership succession?
How does international experience influence the likelihood of being selected to the CEO position for top-level executives in Europe as compared to the US?
This paper examines the models of CEO leadership in each of the five extended-twentieth-century merger waves and assesses the evidence of first-mover dealmakers exhibiting both visionary and deviant behavior.
Mergers have been frequently analyzed from political, economic, strategic, and cultural perspectives but have been less often examined as political events constructed through the deliberate and evocative use of language.
Are the acquiring and target CEOs in these transactions trustworthy leaders, partners in crime (so to speak), or conflicted power brokers in high-stakes maneuvers conflating personal and corporate interests?
Park, K.M. Second Acts: Exploring The Postacquisition Mobility of Acquiring and Target CEOs. In G.T. Solomon (Ed.), Best Papers Proceedings of the 67th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management (CD), ISSN 1543-8643 (2007).
Park, K.M. The Metamorphosis Motive for Major U.S. Mergers, 1993-2000. In D.H. Nagao (Ed.), Best Paper Proceedings of the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management (CD), ISSN 1543-8643 (2003).
Park, K.M. The Variety and Complexity of Qualitative Research Design in International Business: Review of Rebecca Marschan-Piekkari and Catherine Welch, Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods for International Business. Journal of International Management (2006), 12(3):379-382.
Park, K.M. CEOs on the Hot Seat: Failure and Redemption in Organizations: Review of Sydney Finkelstein, Why Smart Executives Fail. American Economist (2004), 48(2):95-96.
Park, K.M. An Interdisciplinary Model of Merging: Organization Theory and the Market for Corporate Control. Scheduled to appear in Service Sciences, Management and Engineering (edited by N. Delener), NY: IBM Press (2007)
The initial purpose of the project was to explore the top 50 U.S. and the top 50 international deals that occurred during the merger wave of 1993-2000. The mergers project developed two datasets involving large intercorporate combinations. These datasets included merger, firm, and managerial-level information on (1) the 50 largest mergers between publicly traded firms in the U.S. and (2) the 50 largest mergers involving pairings of firms from different countries or continents. The value of the domestic transactions ranged from $11 to $165 billion and of the international transactions from $11 to $203 billion. The project continues with data on the global merger wave that commenced in 2003.
The first five merger waves lasted from 1890-1905 (Livermore 1935; Lamoureaux 1985), 1924-1928 (Florence 1937), 1961-1969 (Beckenstein 1975), 1981-1989 (Golbe and White 1988), and 1993-2000 (Harford 2005). In brief, the first wave created monopolies, the second oligopolies, and the third conglomerates (Shleifer and Vishny 1990). The fourth wave became known as the era of LBOs and hostile takeovers and was characterized by a return to firm specialization and focusing on core competencies (Jensen 1993). The fifth wave resembled the second (1920s) in the emphasis on large horizontal mergers and increased intra-industry concentration (Holmstrom and Kaplan 2002). Unlike in the 1920s, the fifth merger wave was a global one, encompassing domestic, cross-border, and cross-continent M&A activity in the five major markets of Asia/Pacific, Europe, Latin America, Middle East/Africa, and the US (FactSet Mergerstat). We are presently in the midst of the sixth overall and the first post-millennial merger wave, which began worldwide in 2003 and in 2006 witnessed an annual deal value approaching $4 trillion globally and exceeding $3 trillion (FT 2006-12-20) in the US and European markets combined. The sixth wave resembles the fourth (1980s) in the recurrence of leveraged buyouts but is distinguished by the new prominence of private equity players.
In the interview component of the project, I explored the meaning of mergers to CEOs and surfaced evidence of their leadership influence. CEO leadership in mergers and acquisitions has been a relatively neglected phenomenon in the M&A literature. In large deals, representing major strategic maneuvers, the input of the acquiring and target CEOs is key in determining the allocation and alignment of resources. Decision making regarding strategic resource commitments on this scale occurs rarely in a CEO's career. Executing a very large merger may represent an actual or attempted career highlight for a CEO. For instance, Jack Welch postponed his retirement at General Electric to oversee the ultimately derailed acquisition of Honeywell in 2001. The contested Hewlett-Packard acquisition of Compaq in 2002 became a defining event early in Carly Fiorinas much-publicized tenure as CEO. In 2003, then newly-appointed Pfizer CEO Hank McKinnell made his mark by acquiring Pharmacia & Upjohn, creating at that time the largest pharmaceuticals company in the world. In 2004, Bank of America CEO Ken Lewis rode the return of the large-deal era with his company's highly-debated purchase of MBNA. In 2005, Jaimie Dimon again neared the zenith of the banking world as designated successor to the newly combined firms of JPMorgan Chase and Bank One. Ed Whitacre capped a long and distinguished career as CEO of SBC with the 2006 landmark acquisition (thus far the largest US deal of the 2000s) of the iconic company and brand AT&T.
Additional components of the project have focused on issues of motives, media, and careers. What are acquiring and target CEO motivations for undertaking major M&A deals? What is the role of the business media not only in reporting news and informing the public but in shaping and influencing the merger process and progress? What is the impact of major mergers on senior executive careers? The project has also further examined the leadership function of CEOs and other senior executives in major M&A transactions by developing merger-related leadership profiles of acquiring and target top management team members.
Research assistants from MIT and Cambridge University: Pravin Bagree, Neil Desai, Ashish Gupta, Timothy Lee, Sheryl Lim, Elizabeth Park, Chirag Shah
A distinguishing characteristic of the 1993-2000 merger wave was the active participation of acquiring and target chief executives as originators and architects in repeated billion-dollar transactions. This close connection between M&A deals as strategic maneuvers and CEOs as the chief strategists contrasted with the merger wave of the 1980s, where record-setting deals were frequently brokered by outsider corporate raiders or takeover specialists rather than the insider CEOs and board members. My dissertation examines the leadership, motivation, and subsequent career mobility of CEOs who arranged large mergers of the 1990s. The interdisciplinary conceptual framework draws on open systems theories, capital markets perspectives, and the executive leadership and turnover literatures to explore the impact and outcome of major mergers for acquiring and target CEOs. Using in-depth interviewing of a cross-industry CEO sample and archival data for a larger merger sample of top-ranking U.S. M&A transactions in that merger wave, my study finds that the merger-making CEOs exerted exceptional leadership influence and played pivotal roles from deal inception through conclusion; they undertook major mergers with the intention and outcome of enacting profound organizational change; and both acquiring and target CEOs experienced unanticipated dislocation in their post-merger careers. Beyond concluding that in major mergers and acquisitions, (1) CEO leadership exists, (2) metamorphic organizational change occurs, and (3) protean career mobility is manifest, I also explore how merger meaning is influenced by the interaction of corporate governance and the business media in the social construction of the transaction. Future research might deconstruct the multifaceted CEO-merger connection in large cross-border deals or entrepreneurial M&A combinations.
To better understand large mergers and acquisitions (M&A) as major intercorporate strategic maneuvers, I investigate a key concern from the chief executive perspective at each stage of combining two firms. For the inception stage, I explore CEO merger motives; in the implementation stage, I examine CEO leadership; at the outcome stage, I consider the postacquisition mobility consequences for CEOs as well as the financial performance of the merged firms. I study these issues in the total sequence of merging from the perspectives of the acquiring and the target CEOs. The investigation relies on interviews with selected CEOs and also secondary data on all CEOs and firms participating in the 158 largest U.S. public M&A deals announced during the 1990s worldwide merger wave and completed during 1993-2002. These large deals embodied unprecedented valuation and complexity requiring the sustained attention and commitment of chief executives from both sides of the transaction.
The first empirical section explores CEO motivations for merging. Merger motives have not been well understood, and previous research has tended to segment perspectives from different disciplines. Drawing on strategic management, organization studies, and financial economics, I examine the five merger motives advanced to datesynergy, managerialism, hubris, free cash flow, and imitationand add the overarching motive of metamorphosis. The metamorphosis motive proposes that mergers create profound organizational change in three dimensions: (1) management structure, (2) strategic direction, and (3) corporate culture. The second section examines CEO leadership roles in M&A transactions. Drawing on the knowledge and resource based views of the firm and the literature on the chief executive function, I identify three phases in the similar merger-related roles of acquiring and target CEOs. In the context of large U.S. mergers in the financial services, computer software, oil and gas, telecommunications, and utilities industries, the purview of acquiring and target CEOs included: (1) making the merger, (2) placing and displacing people, and (3) fulfilling the strategic vision. The third section applies perspectives from human capital, social capital, market discipline, and dyadic relative standing to analyze the impact of mergers and acquisitions on the subsequent career mobility of the merger architects. My analysis differs from previous research by providing a finer-grained operationalization of relative status, examining the fates of both acquiring and target CEOs, and determining postacquisition career outcomes beyond stay or go. Based on a sample of completed large M&A transactions, I conclude that acquiring as well as target CEOs experience elevated departure rates compared to non-merged CEOs; that human capital, social capital and market discipline do not explain departure incidence but that the status parity or discrepancy between the partnering CEOs does; and that merger-displaced CEOs continue to have elite job prospects in public and private firms. Moreover, I determine that the average financial performance of the merged firms in the dataset confirms the established finding of null return to the acquiring firm shareholders relative to the appropriate market benchmark.
Mergers and Acquisitions/ Alliances/ Careers/ Leadership and Governance/ Management Teams/ Ethics/ Research Methods
International Strategic Alliances: Technology-Oriented Western-Asian
International Executive Careers
International Mergers and Acquisitions in the Context of Global Trading Relationships
Multinational Management Teams: Neo-Institutionalism, Transnational Culturality, and Idiographic Ethnography
CEO Attention Capital: View from the Top: Merger Mania, Motive and Meaning in the US Market for Corporate Control
International Comparative Corporate Governance: Variations in the Evolution of Stakeholder Participation and Executive-Stakeholder Relations
Acquiring and Target CEOs and the Struggle for Intra-Dyadic Dominance in the Postacquisition Milieu
"Second Acts: Exploring The Postacquisition Mobility of Acquiring and Target CEOs." Paper presented at the Academy of Management Annual Meeting, Organization and Management Theory Division, 7 August 2007, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (Best Papers Proceedings).
"Executive Elites in International Alliances: Agents of Micro-Political Intrigue and Strategic Change" (with (Koen Dittrich). Presentation at the Critical Management Studies 5th International Conference, Stream 26: A Critical Perspective on the Contextual Constitution of Conflict in Multinational Corporations: Actors and Inequalities, Political Games and Strategies of Resistance, 12 July 2007, Manchester, UK.
"CEO Succession and Alliance Transformation: How New Top Leadership Impacts Alliance Strategy" (with (Koen Dittrich). Paper presented at the Global Business and Technology Association International Conference, 5 July 2007, Taipei, Taiwan (Recipient of GBATA Conference Global Excellence Award).
"Leadership Implications of Large Mergers and Acquisitions: Defining and Exploring Attention Capital." Presentation at the Handelshochschule HHL Summer School, Leipzig Graduate School of Management, 22 June 2007, Leipzig, Germany.
"Permeable Boundary or Perilous Divide? A Political Perspective on Academic-Practitioner Collaborations Toward Knowledge Transfer in Corporate Entrepreneurship in China" (with Alper Alsan). Paper presented at the Organization Studies 3rd Summer Workshop on Organization Studies as Applied Science: The Generation and Use of Academic Knowledge about Organizations, 9 June 2007, Crete, Greece.
"Pathways to Power: US Elite Boarding Schools as Training Grounds for Future Worldwide Organizational Leaders." Invited presentation to the 3rd International Conference on Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, 9 December 2006, Çanakkale, Turkey.
"Their Separate Ways? Contrast and Convergence in the Post-Merger Fates of Acquiring and Target CEOs." Paper presented at the Academy of Management Annual Meeting, Organization and Management Theory Division, 16 August 2006, Atlanta, Georgia.
"Value Creation through International Acquisitions in a World of One-Way Globalization" (with Robert G. Vambery). Paper presented at the Academy of World Business, Marketing and Management Development Conference, 11 July 2006, Paris, France.
"Value Creation in International Acquisitions: Emergence of a New Paradigm?" Paper presented at the Global Business and Technology Association International Conference, 1 July 2006, Moscow, Russia (Recipient of GBATA Conference Global Excellence Award).
"Strategic Bluffing or Unjustifiable Deception? Leadership Tactics in Large International Mergers and Acquisitions." In Gerald Acquaah-Gaisie and Val Clulow (Eds.), Enhancing Corporate Accountability: Prospects and Challenges, Conference Proceedings ISBN 0-7326-2285-9: pp. 1-10, Presented 8 February 2006, Melbourne, Australia (Plenary session speaker and recipient of CLARG fellowship).
"Career Success: Is It Up, Up, Up?" Discussant presentation at 65th Annual Academy of Management Meeting, Careers Division, 8 August 2005, Honolulu, Hawaii.
"Managerial Diaspora: The Global Diffusion of Leadership Talent through International Executive Labor Markets." In Nejdet Delener and Chiang-nan Chao (Eds.), Proceedings of the Global Business and Technology Association International Conference: Global Markets in Dynamic Environments, ISBN 1-932917-01-2: pp. 947-951, Presented 12 July 2005, Lisbon and Leiria, Portugal.
"The Boundaryless Team: Resolving National Identities and Intercultural Conflict in Multinational Management Teams in Multinational Firms." Paper presented in panel on "Teams Beyond Borders?" at the Critical Management Studies 4th International Conference, Stream 4: Critical Perspectives on Researching and Theorizing the Multinational Organization, 6 July 2005, Cambridge, UK.
"Teams Beyond Borders? Socio-Political Integration or Polarization in Multinational Management Teams in the Modern MNC." Organizer and chair of refereed panel presented at the Critical Management Studies 4th International Conference, Stream 4: Critical Perspectives on Researching and Theorizing the Multinational Organization, 6 July 2005, Cambridge, UK.
"The Mathematician Meets the Storyteller: Contextual and Numerical Sensitivity in M&A Analysis." Paper presented in Methodology session at the Critical Management Studies 4th International Conference, Stream 4: Critical Perspectives on Researching and Theorizing the Multinational Organization, 6 July 2005, Cambridge, UK.
"Ascending the Corporate Climbing Frame: Has the 21st Century Organization Abolished the Procrustean Career?" Paper presented at the EGOS 21st Colloquium, Subtheme on Different Forms of Careers: Keys for Switching the Organizational Lock?, 1 July 2005, Berlin, Germany.
"How Mergers Affect Top Managers: The Postacquisition Mobility of Acquiring and Target CEOs." In Proceedings of the 5th Annual Hawaii International Conference on Business (CD), ISSN 1539-722X, Presented 27 May 2005, Honolulu, Hawaii.
"The Formation and Functioning of Multinational Management Teams: Opportunity and Constraint in Internationalization." Presentation to the International Strategic Management Conference: Strategic Management from National and Global Perspectives. In Erol Eren and Ali Akdemir (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Strategic Management Conference, ISBN 975-00010-0-1: pp. 895-898, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Instanbul Commerce University, and Gebze Institute of Technology. Presented 24 June 2005, Çanakkale, Turkey.
"The Formation and Functioning of Multinational Management Teams: Opportunity and Constraint in Internationalization." In Sang M. Lee, Zhong-ming Wang, and Weixing Li (Eds.), The E-Global Age, New Economy, and China: A Close-up Look (CD), ISBN 1-931649-18-12: pp. 335-337, Proceedings of the Pan-Pacific Conference XXII of the Pan-Pacific Business Association, Presented 26 May 2005, Shanghai, China.
"A Century-Plus of Merger Mania: Interpreting Cycles of M&A Boom and Bust through Leadership Behavior, 1895-2000." Paper presented at the Academy of Management Annual Meeting, MH Division, 9 August 2004, New Orleans, Louisiana (Recipient of the Management History Division Award for Outstanding Student Paper).
"Transculturation and Transformation: Optimizing Organizational Capabilities in the Transnational Firm." Paper presented at the EGOS 20th Colloquium, Subtheme on Micro-politics and Conflicts in Multinational Companies, 2 July 2004, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
"International, Technology-Driven Strategic Alliances: Competition and Cooperation in the Global Media and Entertainment Industry" (with Koen Dittrich). In Nejdet Delener and Chiang-nan Chao (Eds.), Proceedings of the Global Business and Technology Association International Conference: Navigating Crisis and Opportunities and in Global Markets, ISBN 1-932917-00-4: pp. 588-595, Presented 9 June 2004, Cape Town, South Africa.
"The Metamorphosis Motive for Major U.S. Mergers, 1993-2000." In D.H. Nagao (Ed.), Best Paper Proceedings of the 63rd Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management (CD), ISSN 1543-8643, Presented 4 August 2003, Seattle, WA.
"Ethical Conduct in the Global Market for Corporate Control: Trust, Truth and Lies at the Top Leadership Level in Large Cross-Border Mergers and Acquisitions." In N. Delener and C.N. Chao (Eds.), Proceedings of the Global Business and Technology Association Annual Conference: Challenging the Frontiers in Global Business and Technology: Implementation of Changes in Values, Strategy and Policy, ISBN 0-9657171-5-1: 1018-1025, New York: GBATA. Presented at the Global Business and Technology 8th International Conference, Presented 10 July 2003, Budapest, Hungary.
"CEO Leadership, Motivation and Mobility in Large Mergers and Acquisitions." In M.H. Hamza (Ed.), Proceedings of the International Association of Science and Technology for Development (IASTED) International Conference on Alliances, Mergers and Acquisitions, ISBN 0-88986-368-7: 50-58. Presented 3 July 2003, Banff, Alberta, Canada.
"Integrating Disciplinary Perspectives in Fifth-Wave M&A Research (Kathleen Park, David R. King, Saikat Chaudhuri, Asli Arikan and Philip K. Goulet)." In M.H. Hamza (Ed.), Proceedings of the IASTED International Conference on Alliances, Mergers and Acquisitions, ISBN 0-88986-368-7: 45-49. Presented 3 July 2003, Banff, Alberta, Canada.
"Hearts and Minds in Large M&A Deals: Creating a Culture of Merging." Presentation at the London Business School Trans-Atlantic Conference, 31 May 2003, London, UK.
Project at MIT Sloan on "Merger Design and Consequences, Stage 2: The Global Market for Corporate Control: Exploring the Top 50 Cross-Border M&A Deals, 1993-2000" (2003-2005)
Project at MIT Sloan on "Merger Design and Consequences: Exploring the Top 50 U.S. M&A Deals, 1993-2000" (2002-2003)
"CEOs in the Merger Process: Aspirations, Influence and Outcomes." Paper presented at the Academy of Management Annual Meeting, Business Policy and Strategy Division, 12 August 2002, Denver, Colorado.
"Career Interrupted? Postacquisition Career Fates of Target Senior Executives." Paper presented at the Academy of Management Annual Meeting, 12 August 2002, Denver, Colorado (Recipient of the Careers Division Arnon Reichers Best Student Paper Award).
"Through the Language Looking Glass: Power and Politics in the Discourse of Mergers and Acquisitions." Paper presented at the European Group for Organizational Studies 18th Colloquium, 6 July 2002, Barcelona, Spain.
"The Metamorphosis Motive: Organizational Renewal and Competitive Repositioning through Intercorporate Combination." Paper presented at the London Business School Trans-Atlantic Conference, 8 June 2002, London, UK.
"Merger Mania in the 1990s: Motive and Meaning from the Chief Executive Perspective." Presentation in the Harvard Business School series on Work, Organizations and Markets, 2 May 2002, Boston, MA.
Society for Organizational Learning "Merging of Organizational Cultures Project," participant from the perspective of CEO cultural leadership in M&A (2001)
"Influential or Inconsequential? Acquired Senior Executives in the Postmerger Firm." Paper presented at the European Group for Organizational Studies 17th Colloquium, 5 July 2001, Lyon, France.
Academy of Management Annual Meetings: AOM 2005 OMT division chair for session on "Power Corrupts: Authority and Resistance in Organizations"; AOM 2005 discussant for Careers division session on "Career Success: Is It Up, Up, Up?"; AOM 2006 chair for CMS division session on "Contemporary Capitalism and Globalism: Critical Assessments of Global Institutions and 21st Century Capitalism"; AOM 2007 chair for OMT division session on "Political Dynamics and Social Influence in Corporate Governance"
European Group for Organizational Studies 2004, Subtheme on Micro-politics and Conflicts in Multinational Companies, chair for session on "Micro-politics and Hybridization II"
Critical Management Studies 5th International Conference 2007, Presenter in and discussant for stream on Conflicts in Multinational Enterprises; Critical Management Studies 4th International Conference 2005, organizer of panel on "Teams Beyond Borders? Socio-Political Integration or Polarization in Multinational Management Teams in the Modern MNC" and discussant for papers on "Micro-political Aspects of Subsidiary Mandates"
Global Business and Technology Association, 2003-2007 meetings, chair for sessions on "Knowledge Management in Transition Economies" (2003), "Reengineering Knowledge Management and Business Education" (2004), "Challenges in Global Business Education" (2005), "Global Economics and Trade: Corporate Governance" (2006), "Pedagogical Challenges in the Global Marketplace" (2007); plenary session co-facilitator for "Achieving Competitive Advantage Through Managing Global Resources: Trends in Global Logistics Management" (2007) and panel member for "The Global Entrepreneurial Revolution" (2007)
International Strategic Management Conference 2005, chair for session on "Strategic Management Approaches at the Functional Level: The Marketing Perspective"
Corporate Accountability Conference 2005, chair for session on "Corporate Accountability and Triple Bottom Line Reporting"
Reviewer for AOM (BPS, OMT and Careers Divisions); Global Business and Technology Association Conference; International Association of Science and Technology for Development Alliances, Mergers and Acquisitions Conference; Corporate Accountability Conference; International Strategic Management Conference; The Journal of Global Business and Technology, The American Economist, Journal of International Management, and Organization Science
Board of International Editorial Advisors, SEE (South East European) Journal of Economics and Business, School of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo
Board member for the Global Business and Technology Association and the International Strategic Management Conference
Workshop Participant in the 1st International Conference on Careers Research and Practice: Myths and Realities (12 March 2007) and Research Consortium Member of the Amsterdam Center for Careers Research, Vrije Universiteit, Netherlands
