MIT Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering
Research and education in nuclear engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology began in the Departments of Physics and Chemical Engineering as early as 1946. To foster education and research in the field, the Institute actively recruited personnel who had been involved in atomic energy projects during World War II. Nuclear science was not yet the domain of any single group of academics; mathematicians, scientists, and engineers worked together, often on specific applications, as they had during the war years. Many of the subjects offered and much of the research undertaken at the Institute was classified. Civilians and military personnel came to MIT primarily to acquire graduate training related to nuclear weapons and propulsion, but there was no organized program in this field for several years.
In 1946 the Laboratory for Nuclear Science and Engineering, later named the Laboratory for Nuclear Science (LNS), was established under the direction of Professor of Physics Jerrold R. Zacharias. The associate director was Professor of Chemical Engineering, Edwin R. Gilliland, and was the assistant director was Malcom M. Hubbard. Faculty members from throughout the Institute taught classes and supervised graduate research.
Under the Lab, then assistant professor of physics, Clark C. Goodwin, taught a classified course in Nuclear Reactor Design in 1946. Goodwin also organized a new subject, Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, with contributions from series of unclassified seminar lectures30 nuclear pioneers who gave a . The course was renamed Neutron Physics with Applications to Nuclear Energy in 1949. Goodwin taught this course until his resignation in 1956.
In 1947, Professor of Physics Robley D. Evans introduced treatment of nuclear fission in his course Nuclear Fission. The course was renamed Nuclear Physics for Engineers in 1955.
Albert R. Kaufman, a member of the MIT Metallurgy faculty, who had directed pioneering research project from 1946 through 1956 on the fabrication of uranium and beryllium gave a classified course on the metallurgy of nuclear materials. By 1951, this became an unclassified subject named Technology of Nuclear Reactor Materials. Kaufman taught the course until his resignation in 1956. The course was renamed Nuclear Metallurgy and during the 1960's became parent of a number of courses dealing with materials for nuclear reactors and the effects of radiation on such materials.
During the 1940's the armed forces sent an increasing number of officers to MIT for graduate training in physics and engineering related to nuclear weapons and nuclear propulsion. Many civilian students were interested in nuclear power and other industrial uses of nuclear energy. The dispersion of nuclear-related subjects among the physics, metallurgy, and engineering departments, and the lack of engineering orientiation in many of these subjects, made it difficult for students with these interests to find a suitable degree program at MIT. In 1951, the Institute led by President James R. Killian, Jr., decided to focus responsibility for instruction and research in nuclear engineering in on of the deparments of the School of Engineering. The Department of Chemical Engineering was chosen because it was the department most heavily involved in nuclear-related activities.
In 1948 the Department of Chemical Engineering established the Engineering Practice School at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, to solve problems that arose at the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) facilities. William A. Reed was the first director, and was succeeded by Thomas H. Pigford in 1950. In 1948 Walter C. Whitman, then head of the Department of Chemical Engineering, directed a classified "summer study," called Project Lexington, to evaluate the feasibility and problems of alternative ideas for nuclear-propelled aircraft. The MIT Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE) was also a partner in the project, which was staffed by scientists from many institutions.
In January 1951 Whitman invited Manson Benedict to be MIT's first professor of nuclear engineering, in the Department of Chemical Engineering . Benedict had been in charge of process development of the gaseous diffusion process for separating uranium-235 for the Manhattan Project and had been the first engineer on the Atomic Energy Commission's Advisory Committee on Reactor Safeguards. Benedict became a full-time faculty member in the fall term of 1952 and taught the first of a new series of nuclear engineering subjects, Nuclear Reactor Engineering I. At the same time, Thomas H. Pigford was transferred from Oak Ridge to Cambridge, as assistant professor of nuclear engineering, to develop the nuclear engineering curriculum with Benedict. These men introduced two new subjects, Nuclear Reactor Engineering II and Introduction to Nuclear Technology, in the spring term of 1953 and Nuclear Chemical Engineering in the fall term of 1953. Robley D. Evans added a new subject, Biological Effects of Nuclear Radiation, to the nuclear engineering curriculum . This curriculum provided sufficient diversity and depth to permit the Department of Chemical Engineering to offer the degree of Master of Science in nuclear engineering by the fall of 1953.
In the summer of 1952 Professors Benedict and Pigford directed a study of fluid-fuel reactors for plutonium production. In 1953 Professor Ascher Shapiro of the Department of Mechanical Engineering directed Project Dynamo, one of the earliest studies of reactors for civilian electric generation. In 1954 Professor J. Edward Vivian of the Department of Chemical Engineering directed Project Separation, which evaluated alternative processes for recovering uranium and plutonium from irradiated nuclear fuel.
The number of interested students increased rapidly. The number of students registered for graduate study in nuclear engineering increased from 8 in September 1953 to 20 in 1954 and to 93 by 1957. The first master of science degrees in nuclear engineering were awarded to four naval officers in September 1953. Award of the doctor's degree to students of nuclear engineering was approved in 1956, with the first degree granted in February 1958, to Roy A. Axford.
1954 was a turning point for nuclear engineering at MIT and all over the world President Eisenhower made his Atoms for Peace proposal, and the United Nations decided to hold the First International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy in Geneva, Switzerland, in the summer of 1955. Professor Whitman was named secretary-general of the conference.
In 1950 the Institute decided to focus instruction and research in nuclear engineering within one department. The Department of Chemical Engineering was chosen as it was the department most involved in nuclear-related activities. The department appointed faculty members with nuclear experience and developed a curriculum leading to advanced degrees. Nuclear engineering was established as Course XXII in the Department of Chemical Engineering.
In January of 1951 Manson Benedict became MIT's first professor of nuclear engineering. Benedict had previously been in charge of the process development of the gaseous diffusion process for separating uranium-235 for the Manhattan Project. Thomas H. Pigford, who transferred back to MIT from Oak Ridge in 1952, and Robley D. Evans also taught in the program. In 1953 Course XXII conferred four master of science degrees, and the first PhD was granted in 1956.
The mid-1950's was the turning point for nuclear engineering throughout the world. President Eisenhower made his Atoms for Peace proposal, and the United Nations decided to hold the 1st International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy in Geneva, Switzerland. The U.S. and other nations declassified sufficient information on nuclear reactors and nuclear fuel processing for presentation at this conference to provide firm technical basis for the new profession of nuclear engineering. As a result, during this period the department grew and expanded the scope of its research and instruction. A significant part of the program involved summer studies such as Project Dynamo, headed by Ascher Shapiro from the Department of Mechanical Engineering, and Project Separation, directed by Professor J. Edward Vivian of the Department of Chemical Engineering.
In 1955 the Institute made two significant decisions: to offer a doctoral program in nuclear engineering and to build a first class university research reactor. Tom Cantwell was hired as business manager for the reactor project; Theos J. (Tommy) Thompson joined the faculty of MIT to take charge of the reactor project; and Edward Barnett came to MIT from Brookhaven National Laboratory to serve as reactor engineer. The AEC received the application for a permit in early 1956 and on June 6, 1956 ground was broken for the new reactor. The reactor, named MITR-I, was completed in 1958 and on June 9th the AEC issued an operating license. On July 21, 1958 the reactor began to operate.
When MITR-I became operational, determination of its operating characteristics and characterizations of its radiations provided topics for many student research projects. Students who participated in the startup and calibration of the reactor recieved unique experience and have gone on to significant positions in industry and academia.
Course XXII separated from the Department of Chemical Engineering and became the Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering on July 1, 1958. This was partly warranted by the sufficiently divergent interests and activities of the nuclear engineering faculty and students from the Department of Chemical Engineering and partly by the increased size of the program. Manson Benedict was named the first department head.
During this period, the first civilian nuclear power plants in the United States went into operation and many faculty members served as advisors to the AEC through its committees. At the 2nd International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy held in August of 1958, new information was presented on such topics as nuclear power generation, controlled fusion, and nuclear materials production. In the five years that followed, the new focus on domestic applications of nuclear power production propelled the department to double the number of subjects and to increase the number of faculty from ten to sixteen.
Norman C. Rasmussen joined the department in 1958 to work with Thompson in teaching Nuclear Reactor Physics, a new course using the Nuclear Reactor Laboratory. To acquire competance in the dynamics and control of nuclear power systems, the department invited Elias P. Gyftopoulos to join the faculty in 1959.
David J. Rose to joined the faculty in 1959 providing expertise and knowledge in the area of fusion of heavy hydrogen isotopes in a thermonuclear plasma. Rose and Melville Clark formulated two subjects that would become the cornerstones of the department: Introduction to Thermonuclear Processes and Thermonuclear Processes. Their text Plasmas and Controlled Fusion, published in 1961, would become a standard work in the field. Rose also introduced the subject Engineering Physics of Plasmas and Particle Devices in 1961.
Rose quickly built up the department's program in plasmas and controlled fusion. He directed a number of doctoral research theses of individuals who have since become prominent in fusion development. Rose directed significant research projects from 1959-1963. Among these projects were: the design and construction of one of the world's first large superconducting magnets, one of the earliest design studies of a thermonuclear blanket, construction of a high-current plasma beam source, and construction of an electromagnet for accelerating a high density plasma.
Kent F. Hansen, who obtained his doctorate in 1959 under Melville Clark, worked with Clark and built up the department's courses in transport theory and introduced the new subject: Digital Computers in Nuclear Engineering. They also wrote the authoritative text Numerical Methods of Reactor Analysis. Hansen became a recognized authority on numerical computation and nuclear reactor analysis. Other graduates of the department who joined the department during this period were: Henri Fenech, James A. Larrimore, and James W. Gosnell.
Thomas H. Dupree, who obtained his doctorate in physics from MIT in 1960, joined the faculty in 1962. Dupree developed the new subject, Plasma Kinetic Theory, and he led the department's theoretical research on plasmas. Lawrence M. Lidsky joined the faculty in 1962 and became one of the leaders in MIT's interdepartmental experimental research on plasma confinement and fusion power systems.
Some of the more notable of the many research projects undertaken by the department during this period included: the Heavy Water Lattice Project funded by the AEC (1959-1967); the Organic Coolant Project, also funded by the AEC (1960-1968); the construction of a bent-quartz-crystal spectrometer to measure the energies of gamma rays emitted when different nuclides absorbed neutrons emitted from the reactor (1958-1963); and the construction of a medical therapy facility in the early 1960s, which was funded by the Rockefeller Foundation.
Between 1963 and 1968 student enrollment increased to 130. The department offered a number of postdoctoral fellowships funded by the Ford Foundation. In 1963 a second heat exchanger and cooling tower was installed at the MIT reactor to permit a power increase to five megawatts. One of the more salient projects of this period was the SIFTOR (Safety Information for the Technology of Reactors) project, the objective of which was to provide guidance for nuclear reactor designers, operators, and safety evaluation groups. With NASA support through the MIT Center for Space Research, Edward A. Mason and Kent F. Hansen made design studies for a hydrogen-cooled nuclear reactor for propulsion of space vehicles such as the NERVA engine that was being developed by the AEC. Gamma-ray detection was updated through the use of a newly developed resolution, triple coincidence lithium-drifted germanium gamma-ray detector. The Reactor Lattice Project, later referred to as the Reactor Physics Project, completed its eight-year program in 1967. In 1966 a special summer session geared toward professionals, Nuclear Power Reactor Safety, was offered for the first time.
Beginning in 1970, the department broadened its undergraduate curriculum and by 1975 offered a full undergraduate program. The first bachelor's degree was awarded in 1977. In parallel with increasing national concerns about the societal effects of advanced technology, the department placed increased emphasis on the historical, economic, environmental, safety, and policy aspects of both nuclear and conventional energy production. This new emphasis enabled the department to participate in joint research projects with other departments and research centers, notably the Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE), the Energy Laboratory, and the Center for Policy Analysis. The new emphasis on environmental and policy-related topics in conjunction with the undergraduate curriculum permitted the department to nearly double its subject offering from 27 to 52.
One of the most significant experimental projects during this period was the reconstruction of the reactor, initiated in 1967. The redesigned reactor, MITR-II, had a more compact core and was cooled by light water. The reactor began to operate again on August 14, 1975. Another significant project with long-term applications for the department was ALCATOR, a plasma experiment. It was conceived by Bruno Coppi of the Department of Physics and was funded by the AEC and NSF. It was built at the Francis Bitter Magnet Laboratory between 1971 and 1973.
In 1976 the federal government began to modify its strong support for the development of nuclear power. Dramatically rising energy costs caused a decline in the demand for new utility plants and the cancellation of projects already under construction. Because nuclear power plants were the bulk of new construction, the nuclear industry was especially hard hit. A growing anti-nuclear movement that resulted in increased regulations for nuclear power plants was further fueled by the accident at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Station in Pennsylvania in 1979. Demand for nuclear engineers did not drop through this period, however, and the difficulties of the industry represented challenging research problems for the members of the program. Graduate enrollment remained high, at between 150 and 160 students.
In 1978 an Institute decision to integrate activities resulted in the creation of the Plasma Fusion Center (MIT Plasma Science and Fusion Center-PSFC). The center was first directed by Lawrence M. Lidsky. The center permitted more effective support for major projects such as ALCATOR, and important advances in fusion research were made by department members. Reactor physics remained essential to nuclear engineering training, and the basic subject material did not change much during this period. Manson Benedict retired from the department in 1978.
In 1981 Neil E. Todreas became head of the department. In 1982 the department reviewed the undergraduate program, determining that the program was still worthwhile in spite of low enrollment. Under Todreas, the department defined its four-fold mission in 1982: (1) providing education, through teaching and research, to individuals from the U.S. and abroad interested in the peaceful uses of nuclear reactions; (2) identifying and developing new scientific and engineering approaches to practical application of nuclear phenomena, and translating these approaches to education programs; (3) contributing to a thorough understanding of nuclear energy and radiation in national and international communities; and (4) contributing to a thorough understanding of the issues which will determine the role of nuclear power in meeting domestic and world energy needs. In the same year Richard Lester launched a major new research project in the area of nuclear power plant design innovation. The Nuclear Power Plant Innovation Project, which received NSF funding the following year, proposed to explore the role of nuclear power plant design innovations in increasing the attractiveness of the nuclear option to U.S. electric utilities in the 1990s.
In 1983 a new doctoral program was started by Gordon L. Brownell and Alan C. Nelson in radiological sciences to supplement the medical radiological physics program. Also in 1983 a new master's program in health physics was introduced under the leadership of Otto K. Harling. Research projects pertaining to reactor engineering included work in the areas of thermal hydraulics and heat transfer; thermal-hydraulic computer codes; and interface between man and the machine as applied to nuclear power stations. Recognizing that problems encountered in the operation of nuclear power plants are related to materials science, the department also strengthened its program in materials research. By the late 1980's, research in the department was divided roughly into 40 percent fission, much of which was focused on next generation nuclear reactors; 25 percent fusion; 25 percent radiation science and technology; and 10 percent energy economics and policy.
In 1989, Mujid S. Kazimi became the 7th department head. In 1990 the department began Know Nukes, a semi-annual newsletter for faculty, alumni, and students. Also in 1990, under Kazimi, the department established the Advanced Nuclear Power Reactor Program, and two years later hosted the first MIT International Conference on the Next Generation of Nuclear Power Technology. In 1993 a long-range plan that called for the consolidation of the fission and fusion areas into an "energy" area and shifted more resources to radiation science and technology applications in the environmental, industrial, and biomedical areas was completed. The department's teaching and research activities were centered around four areas: (1) fission; (2) plasmas and controlled fusion; (3) radiation science and technology; and (4) energy systems and policy. To implement the plan, the department undertook a broad review of the graduate curriculum with the intention of creating a core curriculum for all graduate studies prior to specialization. The undergraduate curriculum was also re-organized into two tracks: "energy" and "radiation for medicine and industry."
Jeffrey P. Freidberg took over as the department head in 1997. Under Freidberg, the department embarked on the task of defining the "new discipline of nuclear engineering." Like other departments across the country, the new discipline focused on the growth and increased emphasis in the Radiation Science and Technology (RST) program while maintaining strength in the energy component comprised of fission and fusion.
The department expanded its opportunities for professional education by offering a one-week course on management issues of nuclear power plants (Risk Informed Operational Decision Management Course) in June of 1993 and a five-week course, co-sponsored by the National Academy for Nuclear Training, designed for utility executives, called Reactor Technology Summer Program for Utility Executives. The special summer session, Nuclear Power Reactor Safety, which started in 1966, is still a popular course today. In 1993 graduate enrollment remained around 150 students and undergraduate enrollment fluctuated between 25 and 40 students. Also in 1993 Professors Otto Harling, Allan Henry, David Lanning, John Meyer, and John Bernard undertook studies to upgrade and relicense MITR-II.
Major centers and labs associated with the department includes the Laboratory for Nuclear Science, the Nuclear Reactor Laboratory, and the Plasma Fusion Center. List others here More recently, the MIT Center for Advanced Nuclear Energy Systems (CANES) was established in 2000.
