筆記 Notes

Introductory Notes

Romanization
There are several systems of romanizing Chinese words in use in the West. In the 19th century, the Wade-Giles system was in widespread use, but since the 1980's, the PRC government has popularized the 拼音 Pinyin system in the Western media. In the early 20th century, the French set up the Chinese postal system, and thus invented spellings for major Chinese cities (e.g. "Peking" for 北京 Beijing, "Nanking" for 南京 Nanjing, "Tientsin" for 天津 Tianjin). Until very recently, the Wade-Giles system was in official use in Taiwan. For consistency and ease of reference, I have chosen to use the Pinyin system. However, for figures whose are popularly known by non-Mandarin or non-Pinyin names (e.g. 孫中山 Dr. Sun Yat-Sen and 蔣中正 Chiang Kai-Shek), I have included both those names and their Pinyin equivalents.

Names of dynasties
In contrast to some European royal houses (e.g. Hapsburg, Romanov and Bourbon), Chinese rulers never used their own surnames for their dynasties. Instead, dynasties were generally named for ancient states or regions of the founder's hometown, which explains why many kingdoms and dynasties share the same name. Beginning with the 明 Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644), dynastic names were chosen for their meaning (e.g. 明 Ming = "bright").

Names of emperors
Chinese emperors typically have one or more "reign titles" (年號) associated with their rule. Each reign title would refer to a specific period of the reign, and actual meaning of which would perhaps indicate political or cultural policies that the emperor wished to promote. Beginning with the 明 Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644), emperors chose only one reign title. Thus, 明 Ming and 清 Qing emperors are now properly referred to by their reign title, not by their personal names (e.g. "the Hongwu emperor", rather than "Zhu Yuanzhang"). After their death, emperors would be referred to by their temple names, and this is standard way of referring to emperors prior to the Ming. One exception to these rules is the Xuantong emperor (r. 1908 - 1912), the last emperor of China; he is commonly known in the West by his personal name, Henry Puyi, and he has no temple name. Incidently, Japan adopted this system of referring to emperors by reign titles during the Meiji Restoration in 1868.

Dates
Chinese have traditionally named the years based on the reign of the current emperor, whose reign title denotes an era (e.g. AD 1700 = 39th year of the Kangxi emperor). Officially, reign eras do not begin until the first Chinese Lunar New Year of the new emperor's reign, so most listings of emperors correctly have the emperor's reign start a year late. The Western Gregorian Calendar was adopted after the 1911 Revolution, and is used in the People's Republic of China for all civil purposes. In Taiwan, the traditional system of counting years is still used for official purposes (documents, forms, coins), and is based on the founding of the Republic (e.g. AD 2000 = 中華民國 89 年, or 89th year of the Republic of China). Japan currently uses the traditional imperial system (e.g. AD 2000 = 12th year of the Heisei emperor), but it seems to me that the Japanese begin counting as soon as the new emperor is enthroned, rather than waiting for the New Year (I'm not sure, so don't quote me on this one).

Decision on whether to list a dynasty and its time span
Not surprisingly, there is some disagreement over how Chinese dynasties should be listed. Often times, an overthrown government continues to control one region of the country, while the new regime fights to extinguish it. Several dynasties or kingdoms may co-exist, conquering each other in succession. In addition, various non-Chinese dynasties have controlled all of, or part of, China. I have consulted several sources and made my own judgment for the listing. Like most sources, I have only counted years of non-Chinese dynasties that have gained control over all China when their sovereignty over the country had been traditionally considered established. However, I have tried to be as complete as possible with respect to all governments that have existed in Chinese history.

Specific Notes

Beginning of 秦 Qin
秦昭襄王 Qin Zhao Xiang Wang had already been ruling 秦 Qin for 51 years when Qin anniliated 周 Zhou; however the other six warring states were still independent regimes. Historiographers thus used the next year (the 52nd year of Qin Zhao Shang Wang) as the official continuation from the Zhou Dynasty therefore so should we. Qin Shi Huang Di was the first Chinese sovereign to proclaim himself "Emperor". (Wiki: Qin).

Beginning of 漢 Han
The beginning of the 漢 Han Dynasty can be dated either from 206 BC, when the 秦 Qin dynasty crumbled, or from 202 BC, when 劉邦 Liu Bang killed Xiang Yu, the leader of a competing rebellion that sought to reinstate the Zhou dynasty aristocracies. (Wiki: Han Dynasty).

Nomenclature for 漢 Han
The Han Dynasty is divided into two periods: the 前漢 Former Han, or 西漢 Western Han, which had its capital at 長安 Chang'an, and the 後漢 Later Han, or 東漢 Eastern Han, which had its capital at 洛陽 Luoyang. The Western-Eastern Han convention is used nowadays to avoid confusion with the 後漢 Later Han Dynasty of the 五代十國 Period of the Five Dynasties and the Ten Kingdoms though the earlier Former-Later nomenclature was used in traditional historical texts like Si-ma Guang's Zi Zhi Tung Jian.

End of 西漢 Western Han
Apparently, the period AD 23 - 25 was still 西漢 Western Han (see ref 15 and Seke Wei). 劉玄 Liu Xuan became emperor (更始帝 Emperor Gengshi) in AD 23 at the end of the Xin Interregnum, but in AD 25 he abdicated in favor of 劉秀 Liu Xiu, who became 光武帝 Emperor Guangwu and the first ruler of the 東漢 Eastern Han Dynasty with the capital at 洛陽 Luoyang.

Nomenclature of 三國 Three Kingdoms
The 蜀 Shu Kingdom of the Three Kingdoms Era is sometimes also referred to as 蜀漢 Shu Han. Why? The founder of the kingdom, 劉備 Liu Bei, saw himself as the rightful successor of the 漢 Han Dynasty because he had familial ties to the Han rulers. Contemporary historians were quite objective about judging who was the legitimate ruler. However, later novelists and theatre writers, especially the classic <<三國演義>> "Romance of the Three Kingdoms," made a villian out of 曹操 Cao Cao (the father of the founder of the 魏 Wei Kingdom) and a hero of 劉備 Liu Bei and his followers. 魏 Wei was always the most powerful kingdom and conquered the 蜀 Shu kingdom in AD 263. As the 司馬 Sima clan had effectively wrested control of 魏 Wei away from the 曹 Cao family, 司馬炎 Sima Yan formally seized the throne in AD 265 and established the 晉 Jin Dynasty (AD 265 - AD 420). The Kingdom of 吳 Wu was later conquered in AD 280 resulting in the unification of China. (Wiki: Three Kingdoms).

五胡十六國 Sixteen Kingdoms by Five Clans of Barbarians
In the fourth century, Northern China was controlled by five Hu nationalities: the Xiongnu, Xianbei, Jie, Di and Qiang. They established sixteen states.

Beginning of the 遼 Liao
[Insert notes from 15a] (From [15a]).

Beginning of the 元 Yuan
[Insert notes from 15a] (From [15a]).

End of 明 Ming and beginning of 清 Qing
Nurhachi united the Juchen tribes and adopted the name 滿州 "Manchu" for his people. He proclaimed himself emperor of the 後金 Later Jin ("golden") dynasty in 1616. His son, Abahai, changed the name of the dynasty to 清 Qing ("pure") in 1636. In 1644, under the regency of Dorgon, the Manchus entered Beijing and declared themselves the rulers of China. However, the last remnants of the Ming, called the Southern Ming, weren't defeated until 1662, when the last pretender to the Ming throne was executed by the Manchus. In fact, some historians don't even begin counting the Qing emperors until Kangxi's annihilation of the Ming in 1662. Hence, the four emperors from Nurhachi to Kangxi are all considered "founders" of the Qing dynasty. (From [3] and [15a]).

Shenyang
Shenyang is the capital of Liaoning Province, located in the northeast of China. It is an ancient city with a long history. Back to more than 7,200 years ago, ancestors of the mankind lived and multiplied on this beautiful land. In 1625, Nurhach, the Tai Zu Emperor of Qing Dynasty, transferred its capital to Shenyang, and in 1634, Huang Tai Ji, Tai Zong Emperor of Qing Dynasty worshipped Shenyang as Shengjing, and it became the capital of Qing Dynasty. In 1644, after the capital was moved to Beijing in Qing Dynasty, Shenyang became an accompanying capital. In 1945, the city recovered its name-Shenyang. (Ameson)

Capital of 中華民國 Republic of China
When the ROC government relocated to 台灣 Taiwan in 1949, 南京 Nanjing was still considered the official national capital and 台北 Taipei was designated as a provisional capital. Presumably, this was done in order for the ROC to maintain its claim as China's legitimate government and to emphasize its intention to return to the mainland. This situation technically remains in force today.

Surname Notes

劉 Liu was the surname of were the ruling family of the Han Dynasty, the Shu Kingdom in the Period of the Three Kingdoms, the Han Zhao Kingdom and the Xia Kingdom in the Period of the Sixteen Kingdoms, the Song Dynasty of the Southern Dynasties, the Later Han Dynasty and the Northern Han Kingdom and the Southern Han Kingdom of the Period of the Five Dynasties and the Ten Kingdoms. (Wiki: Liu)

Lingering Questions

Capitals of 商 Shang (殷 Yin)
According to [18], "the Shang dynasty may have changed capitals as many as seven times. It was recorded that the Shang Dynasty had five capitals: Erlitou (Yanshi), Ao (Zhengzhou), Yin (Anyang), Bo (Shangqiu), and Chaoge. Scholars hold different ideas about how the above four sites are related to the names recorded in historical documents. They only agree that the ruins in Yin (Anyang, Henan Province) was the capital after the reign of Pan Geng. Why did Shang have so many capitals? According to the `decentralization' theory, China Proper during Shang times was actually a collection of city-states who were ruled by a capital city. As power shifted from one city-state to the next, the capital shifted from state to state. The `royal power struggle' theory states that from the Pan Geng portrayed in the Shangshu, one can see that it was related to the political strife within the royal family. For example, Pan Geng claimed that `I moved the capital only for the benefit of the people.' But he had also threatened to destroy those who would not obey his order. After Pangeng moved the capital to Yin, the conflict within the royal family eased and the economy began to develop. Pangeng was therefore named the `Restoration King.' The restoration laid the foundation for the coming golden age of Wu Ding." However, in another part of the same reference, [18], yet another capital city, Hao in Shaanxi, is listed. In [19], it is stated that the Shang was moved five times. What was the exact history of how these capitals moved?

Capitals of 周 Zhou
According to [19], the 西周 Western Zhou capital was 鎬京 Haojing and that of 東周 Eastern Zhou was "present" 洛陽 Luoyang. On another page of [19], it is stated that Haojing is near present-day 西安 Xi'an and that Luoyi (now 洛陽 Luoyang) was the capital of Eastern Zhou. I guess Haojing and 西安 Xi'an are close enough to be considered the same city. In [18], Haojing is known as simply Hao and Feng is also listed as a capital of Western Zhou. According to [18], present-day 洛陽 Luoyang is near Chengzhou at the time (no Chinese characters), but it has Luoyi in parentheses and with a question mark. What are the correct names?

鎬京 Haojing vs. 咸陽 Xianyang vs. 長安 Chang'an vs. 西安 Xi'an
What is the relationship between these four cities? Are they the same? Many places, such as [19] and [18], only say that 咸陽 Xianyang was near present-day 西安 Xi'an, but then they say that 長安 Chang'an is present-day 西安 Xi'an. To further confuse things, [13] says that 長安 Chang'an is in present-day northwest 西安縣 Xi'an County, 陜西省 Shaanxi Province.

Capital of 西漢 Western Han
[18] states that the capital of the 西漢 Western Han dynasty was moved from Xinzheng to 長安 Chang'an. This is the only place that mentions Xinzheng.

Capital of 新 Xin
Was the capital of 新 Xin also 長安 Chang'an? [18] says it was.

End of 西漢 Western Han
Did 西漢 Western Han end in AD 8 or AD 9?

Capital of 東漢 Eastern Han and 魏 Wei
Some sources say that 洛陽 Luoyang was the capital of both 東漢 Eastern Han and 魏 Wei. However, sources from the <<三國演義>> "Romance of the Three Kingdoms," say that 曹操 Cao Cao moved the last 東漢 Eastern Han emperor to his base at 許昌 Xuchang, effectively making that city the capital. When his son founded 魏 Wei, apparently both cities were the capital city at some point in time. When did this happen?

建康 Jiankang vs. 南京 Nanjing
The Six Dynasties are so called because they all had the same capital city: 建康 Jiankang. Some sources say that 建康 Jiankang is modern 南京 Nanjing, but Wiki Jiankang says that "Jiankang, formerly known as Jianye (?? jian4 ye4) until Eastern Jin Dynasty (317 - 420), is an ancient city in China, located west of present-day Nanjing, in south Jiangning County (??? jiang1 ning2 xian4). It was in Sui Dynasty that Jiankang renamed to Jiangning. " Chinaknowledge has Jianye as capital of Wu, but Jian'an as capital of Eastern Jin. According to china10k, All emperors made Jiankang their capital, except Emperor Yuan of Liang who made Jiangling his capital for three years. Check maps in map book.

Modifiers of 南朝 Southern Dynasties
Friesian is the only reference that uses the modifiers in the names of the Southern Dynasties (420 - 589). Are they standard?

五胡十六國 Sixteen Kingdoms by Five Clans of Barbarians
The map in [13], page 65, shows the Sixteen Kingdoms. It also has three additional states: 前蜀 Former Shu and 後蜀 Later Shu (both with capital as 成都 Chengdu), and 西燕 Western Yan (長子 Changzi). It also shows the capital of 北魏 Northern Wei as 盛樂 Shengle.

Capital of 北魏 Northern Wei
According to [19], 北魏 Northern Wei moved its capital to Luoyang in 471, but other sources ??? say this occurred in 493. Still, [11] says this occurred in 494.

Capital of 東魏 Eastern Wei and 北齊 Northern Qi
Was the capital of Eastern Wei and Northern Qi Linzhang or Ye?

Capitals of 宋 Song and its contemporaries
How and when did the capitals of the Northern/Southern Song, Liao, Jin, and Mongol empires change hands? According to the maps on pages 17 and 18 of volume 2 of [13], Liao and Jin had five capital cities each. Were these simultaneous?

開封 Kaifeng, 杭州 Hangzhou, 北京 Beijing, and others
[16] says Kaifeng was Bianliang during the Five Dynasties and was Dongjing during the Northern Song, Hangzhou was Lin'an during the Southern Song, Yinchuan was Xingqing during the Western Xia, Beijing was Dadu (Yuan), Shuntian (Qing), and Nanjing was Yingtian (Ming). However, [13], which is probably more accurate, says that Kaifeng was Bianjing during the Five Dynasties. What makes it even more confusing is that the map on page 4 of volume 2 of the Later Liang labels Kaifeng as Dongdu (large font) and Luoyang as Xidu (large font), then on page 6, the map of Later Han has Kaifeng as Dongjing (large font) and Luoyang as Xijing (large font). It states that the capital of Northern Song was Bianjing and that of Southern Song was Lin'an. I think the author of [16] misread 京 "jing" as 涼 "liang." (UPDATE: see page 840, entry 2788, of [20])

Last modified on October 22, 2003