INAF 466 Professor Ronald E. Doel

Spring 1995 Office Hours: 4:15-5 PM Wed. ICC 618

2:15 - 4:05 PM Wed. Telephone: 202/357-2828 (daytime)

ICC 202

E-mail: DOELR@GUVAX.ACC.GEORGETOWN.EDU

This course examines the development of science and technology policy in its international context during the twentieth century. Our objective in this course will be to understand the relationship between science, technology, and the modern state. The course will emphasize, but not be limited to, U.S. relations with Western Europe, Eastern bloc nations, and the emerging Third World.

Topics to be addressed in this course include imperialism and colonialism; international cooperation in scientific research; weapons research and scientific-technological reparation policy after World War II, technology transfer; big science; international relations during the Cold War; science in the State Department and the CIA; international biology and medicine; and global environmental concerns.

Required Books (all paperback or low-cost hardback)

Skolnikoff, Eugene. The Elusive Transformation: Science, Technology, and the Evolution of International Politics, 1993. (pbk.)

Thackray, Arnold, ed. Science After Forty. Special edition of Osiris [second series, vol. 7, 1992] (pbk.)

Moore, Curtis and Alan Miller. Green Gold: Japan, Germany, the United States, and the Race for Environmental Technology, 1994. (hardcover)

Science and Technology in Foreign Affairs (anthology of articles, 1994). (pbk.)

Required (but free of charge):

Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology, and Government. Science and Technology in U.S. Foreign Affairs, 1992. (To be distributed in seminar.)
Recommended but not required

Format:

This is primarily a discussion seminar. Reading and writing demands are substantial. The seminar will be limited to 18 participants, including graduate students; permission of instructor required for additional registration.

Requirements:

Because the success of this class will depend on students being prepared to discuss readings, it is imperative that all reading assignments be completed before seminar meetings. Familiarity with readings and active participation in discussion are necessary to fulfill minimum course requirements. All students will write a 1-page paper (circa 250 words) each week, based on a pre-assigned theme, that addresses the week's reading; these are due at the start of class.

Undergraduate seminar members will also prepare a 12 to 15 page paper (double-spaced, roughly 250 words per page, in Courier type 10 or equivalent), whose topic will be chosen in consultation with the instructor. Careful identification of critical problems and high standards of analysis are expected. This paper will be due at the end of the semester. (Graduate students will be asked to complete a second, short paper of circa 5 pages.) Students will also make an oral presentation and lead a brief class discussion of their analysis and conclusions.

Grading:

No mid-term or final examinations are given. In their stead, grades will be based on the following: the research paper (50% of grade), oral presentations in seminar and weekly brief essays (30%) and participation in general class discussions (20%).

Course outline:

Week 1 (January 18) Introduction

Week 2 (January 25) From the Republic of Letters to National Security Concerns: Defining International Science

Week 3 (February 1) Science and Warfare: From Reparations Policies to Weapons Systems

Week 4 (February 8) Big Science

Week 5 (February 15) Space Policy: U.S., Europe, and Japan

Week 6 (February 22) Imperialism, Colonialism, and Technology Transfer

Week 7 (March 1) The Cold War and Its Legacy

Week 8 (March 15) Science and the State Department (I): The CIA, Intelligence-gathering, and International Science

Week 9 (March 22) Science and the State Department (II): Science and Technology Policy

Week 10 (March 29) Multi-national Scientific Cooperation

Week 11 (April 5) International Biology and Health (I): From Biological Warfare to Intellectual Property Rights

Week 12 (April 12) International Biology and Health (II): Population Growth and Resource Management

Week 13 (April 19) International Environmental Policy (I): Global Environmental Issues

Week 14 (April 26) International Environmental Policy (II): Policy Disputes and Technological Competitiveness

Week 15 (May 3) Conclusion and Summary

Reading assignments:

January 25 From the Republic of Letters to National Security Concerns: Defining International Science

Skolnikoff, 3-43.

Lewis Thomas, "Scientific Frontiers and National Frontiers: A look Ahead," Foreign Affairs 62, 4 (Spring 1984): 966-994 (SKIM)

Lorraine Daston, "Nationalism and Scientific Neutrality under Napoleon," in Tore Frangmyr, ed., Soloman's House Revisited: The Organization and Institutionalization of Science (Canton, MA: Science History Publications, 1989): 95-119. (reserve)

A. Hunter Dupree, "Science Policy in the United States: The Legacy of John Quincy Adams," Minerva 28, 3 (Autumn 1990): 259-271. (reserve)

Iskender Gökalp, "Intellectual Co-operation between Research and Design in Engineering Sciences, Or How to Cross the Border Between the Engine and the Laboratory," in Gemelli, Giuliana, ed, Big Culture: Intellectual Cooperation in Large-Scale Cultural and Technical Systems. An Historical Approach (Belogna: Editrice, 1994): 287-297. (reserve)

Elisabeth Crawford, Terry Shinn, and Sverker Sörlin, "The Nationalization and denationalization of the Sciences: An Introductory Essay," in Crawford, Shinn, and Sörlin, eds., Denationalizing Science: The Contexts of International Scientific Practice (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1993): 1-42. (reserve)

Vittorio Ancarani, "Globalizing the World: Science and Technology in International Relations," in Sheila Jasanoff et al., eds.,

February 1 Science and Warfare: From Reparations Policies to Weapons Systems

Skolnikoff, 49-92.

J.W. de Villiers, Roger Jardine, and Mitchell Reiss, "Why South Africa Gave Up the Bomb," Foreign Affairs 72, 5 (Nov./Dec. 1993): 98-109.

Carl Kaysen, Robert S. McNamara and George W. Rathjens, "Nuclear Weapons after the Cold War," Foreign Affairs 70, 4 (Fall 1991): 95-110.

John Gimbel, Science, Technology, and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990): 3-34; carefully skim 37-59. (reserve)

February 8 Big Science

James H. Capshew and Karen A. Rader, "Big Science: Price to the Present," Osiris 7 [second series] (1992): 3-25.

Daniel Clery, "A Once-Favored Discipline has the Furthest to Fall," Science 264 (May 27, 1994): 1268-1270. (reserve.)

Loren R. Graham, "Big Science in the Last Years of the Big Soviet Union," Osiris 7 [second series] (1992): 49-71.

Daniel J. Kevles, ["Introduction to 1995 edition,"] The Physicists (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press). (reserve)

Paul Josephson, "The Crisis in Russian Physics," American Scientist (Nov.-Dec. 1993): 571-579. (reserve)

Sharon Traweek, "Big Science and Colonialist Discourse: Building High-Energy Physics in Japan," in Peter Galison and Bruce Hevly, eds., Big Science: The Growth of Large-Scale Research (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992): 100-128. (reserve)

Robert W. Smith, "The Biggest Kind of Big Science: Astronomers and the Space Telescope," in Peter Galison and Bruce Hevly, eds., Big Science: The Growth of Large-Scale Research (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992): 184-211. (reserve)

RESEARCH PAPER TOPIC DUE

February 15 Space Policy: U.S., Europe, and Japan

Arturo Russo, "The Definition of Scientific Policy: ESRO's Satellite Programme in 1969-1973," ESA HSR-6 (March 1993): 1-47. (SKIM; focus on 1-4, 45-47.) (reserve)

John M. Logsdon, "Missing Halley's Comet: The Politics of Big Science." Isis 80, no. 302 (1989): 254-280. (reserve)

Nathan C. Goldman, "International and Foreign Space Programs," in Goldman, Space Policy: An Introduction (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1992): 31-48. (reserve)

Jeffrey M. Lenorovitz, "Ariane Commercial Launcher Begins New Operational Phase," Aviation Week and Space Technology (June 29, 1992): 44-47. (reserve)

Gary Milhollin and Gerard White, "The Brazilian Bomb: South America Goes Ballistic," New Republic (Aug. 13, 1990): 10-11. (reserve)

Damon R. Wells and Daniel E. Hastings, "The US and Japanese Space Programmes: A Comparative Study," Space Policy (Aug. 1991): 233-256. (reserve)

February 22 Imperialism, Colonialism, and Technology Transfer

Skolnikoff, 132-138.

Latin American Scientific Cooperation: Joint Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Science of the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology (1992): 1-41.

Walter B. Wriston, "Technology and Sovereignty," Foreign Affairs 67, 2 (Winter 1988/89): 63-75.

W. Michael Blumenthal, "The World Economy and Technological Change," Foreign Affairs 66, 3 (1987-88): 529-550.

Paolo Palladino and Michael Worboys, "Science and Imperialism," Isis 84 (1993): 91-102. (reserve)

Lewis Pyenson, "Cultural Imperialism and Exact Sciences Revisited," Isis 84 (1993): 103-108. (reserve)

Wesley Shrum and Yehouda Shenhav, "Science and Technology in Less Developed Countries," in Sheila Jasanoff et al., eds., Handbook of Science and Technology Studies (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1994): 627-651. (reserve)

March 1 The Cold War and Its Legacy

Sergei P. Kapitza, "Lessons of Chernobyl: The Cultural Causes of the Meltdown." Foreign Affairs 72, 3 (Summer 1993): 7-11.

Kenneth H. Keller, "Science and Technology," Foreign Affairs 69, 4 (Fall 1990): 123-138.

Stuart W. Leslie, The Cold War and American Science (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993): 1-13. (reserve)

Allan A. Needell, "'Truth is our Weapon': Project TROY, Political Warfare, and Government-Academic Relationships in the National Security State," Diplomatic History 17, 3 (Summer 1993): 399-420. (reserve)

John Lewis Gaddis, "Learning to Live with Transparency: The Emergence of a Reconnaissance Satellite Regime," in Gaddis, The Long Peace: Inquiries into the History of the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987): 195-214. (reserve)

Eugene B. Skolnikoff, "The Side Effects of the Scientific Enterprise," in Skolnikoff, Science, Technology, and American Foreign Policy (1967): 83-97. (reserve)

March 8 BREAK

March 15 Science and the State Department (I): The CIA, Intelligence-gathering, and International Science

Skolnikoff, pp. 209-210

Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology, and Government, Science and Technology in U.S. Foreign Affairs (1992): 9-12 (top), 29-57.

Allan A. Needell and Ronald E. Doel, "Science and the State Department," circulating draft ms. (reserve)

Ludwell Lee Montague, "The Office of Scientific Intelligence," in Montague, General Walter Debell Smith as Director of Central Intelligence, Oct. 1950-1953 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992): 173-180. (reserve)

Joseph A. Manzione, "Atoms for Peace," in Manzione, "The American Scientific Community, the United States Government, and the Issue of International Scientific Relations during the Cold War" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1992): 465-522. (reserve)Yakov M. Rabkin,

[Original documents, including Lloyd Berkner, Science and the State Department (1950) and other policy materials.] (reserve)

March 22 Science and the State Department (II): Science and Technology Policy

George Kistiakowsky, "Observations on Presidential Science-Advising: An Interview by William T. Golden," in William T. Golden, ed., Science and Technology Advice to the President, Congress, and Judiciary (Washington, DC: AAAS Press, 1993): 491-502. (reserve)

International Science and Technology and Foreign Policy: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on International Scientific Cooperation of the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives (1990): 1-2, 6-58, 61-113 (reserve)

March 29 Multi-national Scientific Cooperation

William D. Carey, "Science Policy: USA and USSR," in William T. Golden, ed., Science and Technology Advice to the President, Congress, and Judiciary (Washington, DC: AAAS Press, 1993): 83-86. (reserve)

John Krige, "Some Socio-Historical Aspects of Multinational Collaborations in High-Energy Physics at CERN Between 1975 and 1985," in Elisabeth Crawford, Terry Shinn, and Sverker Sörlin, eds., Denationalizing Science: The Contexts of International Scientific Practice (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1993): 233-262. (reserve)

Allan A. Needell, "[Origins of the International Geophysical Year]," in Needell, Over the Horizon: A Scientific Biography of Lloyd V. Berkner [forthcoming]. (reserve).

Aant Elzinga, "Antarctica: The Construction of a Continent by and For Science," in Elisabeth Crawford, Terry Shinn, and Sverker Sörlin, eds., Denationalizing Science: The Contexts of International Scientific Practice (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1993): 73-106. (reserve)

April 5 International Biology and Health (I): From Biological Warfare to Intellectual Property Rights

Glenn E. Bugos and Daniel J. Kevles, "Plants as Intellectual Property: American Practice, Law, and Policy in World Context," Osiris [second series] 7 (1992): 75-104.

Latin American Scientific Cooperation: Joint Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Science of the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology (1992): 49-107; focus on 50-71. (reserve).

Susan Wright, "Evolution of Biological Warfare Policy," in Susan Wright, ed., Preventing a Biological Arms Race (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990): 26-68. (reserve)

Henry Etzkowitz and Andrew Webster, "Science as Intellectual Property," in Sheila Jasanoff et. al., Handbook of Science and Technology Studies (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1994): 480-505. (reserve)

April 12 International Biology and Health (II): Population Growth and Resource Management

Skolnikoff, 141-159.

Nicholas Eberstadt, "Population Change and National Security," Foreign Affairs 70, 3 (Summer 1991): 115-131.

Michael S. Teitelbaum, "The Population Threat," Foreign Affairs 72, 5 (Winter 1992/93): 63-78.

Samuel P. Hays, Beauty, Health, Permanence: Environmental Policy in the U.S., 1955-1985 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985): 207-245. (reserve)

Steven Yearley, "The Environmental Challenge to Science Studies," in Sheila Jasanoff et. al., Handbook of Science and Technology Studies (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1994): 457-479. (reserve)

April 19 International Environmental Policy (I): Global Environmental Issues

Skolnikoff, 162-165, 175-201.

Carl Sagan, "Nuclear War and Climatic Catastrophe: Some Policy Implications." Foreign Affairs 62, 2 (Winter 1983-84): 257-292.

Roderick Nash, "The International Perspective," in Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (New Haven: Yale University Press, third edition, 1982): 342-378. (reserve)

Peter H. Gleick, "The Implications of Global Climatic Changes for International Security," Climatic Change 15 (1989): 309-325. (reserve)

Sheldon Ungar, "The Rise and (Relative) Decline of Global Warming as a Social Problem," Sociological Quarterly 15, 4 (1992): 483-501. [SKIM carefully]. (reserve)

Richard Monastersky, "Satellite Detects a Global Sea Rise," Science News 146, 24 (Dec. 10, 1994): 388.

Lawrence E. Susskind, Environmental Diplomacy: Negotiating More Effective Global Agreements (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994): 11-42. (reserve; SKIM carefully)

Spencer R. Weart, "From the Nuclear Frying Pan into the Global Fire." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 48, 5 (1992): 18-27.

April 26 International Environmental Policy (II): Policy Disputes and Technological Competitiveness

Curtis and Moore, 1-58, 79-124, 194-221 (skim rest--an easy read).

Starley Thompson and Stephen H. Schneider, "Nuclear Winter Reappraised," Foreign Affairs 64, 5 (Summer 1986): 981-1005.

"Comment and Correspondence: The Nuclear Winter Debate," Foreign Affairs 55, 1 (Fall 1986): 163-178.

B. R. Inman and Daniel F. Burton, Jr., "Technology and Competitiveness: The New Policy Frontier," Foreign Affairs 69, 2 (Spr. 1990): 116-134. (skim.)

"International Networks for Addressing Issues of Global Change," Sigma Xi Publication (1993): 5-24; skim 29-36 (reserve.)

May 3 Conclusion and Summary

Skolnikoff, 233-251.

RESEARCH PAPERS DUE

Reserve readings (alphabetical listing)

Ancarani, Vittorio. "Globalizing the World: Science and Technology in International Relations," in Sheila Jasanoff et al., eds., Handbook of Science and Technology Studies (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1994): 652-670.

Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology, and Government, Science and Technology in U.S. Foreign Affairs (1992): 9-12 (top), 29-57.

Carey, William D., "Science Policy: USA and USSR," in William T. Golden, ed., Science and Technology Advice to the President, Congress, and Judiciary (Washington, DC: AAAS Press, 1993): 83-86.

Clery, Daniel, "A Once-Favored Discipline has the Furthest to Fall," Science 264 (May 27, 1994): 1268-1270.

Crawford, Elisabeth, Terry Shinn, and Sverker Sörlin, "The Nationalizaation and denationalization of the Sciences: An Introductory Essay," in Crawford, Shinn, and Sörlin, eds., Denationalizing Science: The Contexts of International Scientific Practice (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1993): 1-42.

Daston, Lorraine, "Nationalism and Scientific Neutrality under Napoleon," in Tore Frangmyr, ed., Soloman's House Revisited: The Organization and Institutionalization of Science (Canton, MA: Science History Publications, 1989): 95-119.

Dupree, A. Hunter, "Science Policy in the United States: The Legacy of John Quincy Adams," Minerva 28, 3 (Autumn 1990): 259-271.

Elzinga, Aant, "Antarctica: The Construction of a Continent by and For Science," in Elisabeth Crawford, Terry Shinn, and Sverker Sörlin, eds., Denationalizing Science: The Contexts of International Scientific Practice (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1993): 73-106.

Etzkowitz, Henry and Andrew Webster, "Science as Intellectual Property," in Sheila Jasanoff et. al., Handbook of Science and Technology Studies (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1994): 480-505.

Gaddis, John Lewis, "Learning to Live with Transparency: The Emergence of a Reconnaissance Satellite Regime," in Gaddis, The Long Peace: Inquiries into the History of the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987): 195-214.

Gimbel, John, Science, Technology, and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990): 3-34; carefully skim 37-59.

Gleick, Peter H., "The Implications of Global Climatic Changes for International Security," Climatic Change 15 (1989): 309-325.

Gökalp, Iskender,"Intellectual Co-operation between Research and Design in Engineering Sciences, Or How to Cross the Border Between the Engine and the Laboratory," in Gemelli, Giuliana, ed, Big Culture: Intellectual Cooperation in Large-Scale Cultural and Technical Systems. An Historical Approach (Belogna: Editrice, 1994): 287-297.

Goldman, Nathan C., "International and Foreign Space Programs," in Goldman, Space Policy: An Introduction (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1992): 31-48.

Hays, Samuel P., Beauty, Health, Permanence: Environmental Policy in the U.S., 1955-1985 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985): 207-245.

"International Networks for Addressing Issues of Global Change," Sigma Xi Publication (1993): 5-24; skim 29-36.

International Science and Technology and Foreign Policy: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on International Scientific Cooperation of the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives (1990): 1-2, 6-58, 61-113.

Josephson, Paul, "The Crisis in Russian Physics," American Scientist (Nov.-Dec. 1993): 571-579.

Kevles, Daniel J. ["Introduction to 1995 edition,"] The Physicists (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press).

Kistiakowsky, George, "Observations on Presidential Science Advising: An Interview by William T. Goldman," in William T. Golden, ed., Science and Technology Advice to the President, Congress, and Judiciary (Washington, DC: AAAS Press, 1993): 491-502.

Krige, John, "Some Socio-Historical Aspects of Multinational Collaborations in High-Energy Physics at CERN Between 1975 and 1985," in Elisabeth Crawford, Terry Shinn, and Sverker Sörlin, eds., Denationalizing Science: The Contexts of International Scientific Practice (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1993): 233-262.

Latin American Scientific Cooperation: Joint Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Science of the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology (1992): 49-107; focus on 50-71.

Lenorovitz, Jeffrey M., "Ariane Commercial Launcher Begins New Operational Phase," Aviation Week and Space Technology (June 29, 1992): 44-47.

Leslie, Stuart W., The Cold War and American Science (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993): 1-13.

Logsdon, John M., "Missing Halley's Comet: The Politics of Big Science." Isis 80, no. 302 (1989): 254-280.

Manzione, Joseph A., "Atoms for Peace," in Manzione, "The American Scientific Community, the United States Government, and the Issue of International Scientific Relations during the Cold War" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1992): 465-522.

Milhollin, Gary and Gerard White, "The Brazilian Bomb: South America Goes Ballistic," New Republic (Aug. 13, 1990): 10-11.

Monastersky, Richard, "Satellite Detects a Global Sea Rise," Science News 146, 24 (Dec. 10, 1994): 388.

Montague, Ludwell Lee, "The Office of Scientific Intelligence," in Montague, General Walter Debell Smith as Director of Central Intelligence, Oct. 1950-1953 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992): 173-180.

Nash, Roderick, "The International Perspective," in Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (New Haven: Yale University Press, third edition, 1982): 342-378.

Needell, Allan A. "'Truth is our Weapon': Project TROY, Political Warfare, and Government-Academic Relationships in the National Security State," Diplomatic History 17, 3 (Summer 1993): 399-420.

Needell, Allan A. and Ronald E. Doel, "Science and the State Department," circulating draft ms.

Needell, Allan A., "[Origins of the International Geophysical Year]," in Needell, Over the Horizon: A Scientific Biography of Lloyd V. Berkner [forthcoming].

[Original documents, including Lloyd Berkner, Science and the State Department (1950) and other policy materials.] Palladino, Paolo and Michael Worboys, "Science and Imperialism," Isis 84 (1993): 91-102.

Pyenson, Lewis, "Cultural Imperialism and Exact Sciences Revisited," Isis 84 (1993): 103-108.

Russo, Arturo, "The Definition of Scientific Policy: ESRO's Satellite Programme in 1969-1973," ESA HSR-6 (March 1993): 1-47. (SKIM; focus on 1-4, 45-47.)

Shrum, Wesley and Yehouda Shenhav, "Science and Technology in Less Developed Countries," in Sheila Jasanoff et al., eds., Handbook of Science and Technology Studies (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1994): 627-651.

Skolnikoff, Eugene B., "The Side Effects of the Scientific Enterprise," in Skolnikoff, Science, Technology, and American Foreign Policy (1967): 83-97.

Smith, Robert W., "The Biggest Kind of Big Science: Astronomers and the Space Telescope," in Peter Galison and Bruce Hevly, eds., Big Science: The Growth of Large-Scale Research (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992): 184-211.

Susskind, Lawrence E., Environmental Diplomacy: Negotiating More Effective Global Agreements (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994): 11-42.

Traweek, Sharon, "Big Science and Colonialist Discourse: Building High-Energy Physics in Japan," in Peter Galison and Bruce Hevly, eds., Big Science: The Growth of Large-Scale Research (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992): 100-128.

Ungar, Sheldon, "The Rise and (Relative) Decline of Global Warming as a Social Problem," Sociological Quarterly 15, 4 (1992): 483-501.

Weart, Spencer R. "From the Nuclear Frying Pan into the Global Fire." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 48, 5 (1992): 18-27.

Wells, Damon R. and Daniel E. Hastings, "The US and Japanese Space Programmes: A Comparative Study," Space Policy (Aug. 1991): 233-256.

Wright, Susan, "Evolution of Biological Warfare Policy," in Susan Wright, ed., Preventing a Biological Arms Race (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990): 26-68.

Yearley, Steven, "The Environmental Challenge to Science Studies," in Sheila Jasanoff et. al., Handbook of Science and Technology Studies (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1994): 457-479.