THE WAY OF
NEMBUTSU-FAITH


A Commentary on
THE SHOSHINGE
with references to Wasan

by
Zuio Hisao Inagaki

First published by Nagata Bunshodo, Kyoto,1996
Revised September, 2000

Part 1
Section on the exposition
based on the Sutras

Index

<<Index>>

FOREWORD

　The canon of Shin literature comprises the three Pure Land sutras, discourses and commentaries of the Seven Patriarchs, works of Shinran Shonin, and writings of other masters. From the viewpoint of both doctrinal studies and the practical faith of Shin Buddhism, the Shoshinge occupies a position of the first importance. Perhaps no other text can match it in the influence it has exerted on the formation and development of the Shin way of living throughout Japan. In recent years, the text has been translated not only into English but also into other European languages in line with the enthusiastic efforts of Shin Buddhists of all nationalities to spread understanding of the Other-Power teaching of Shinran. The original text was written in classical Chinese and is full of highly specialized doctrinal terms. So mere translation would be insufficient to bring the Shin teaching close to the hearts of followers who have a non-Buddhist background. The series of articles on the the Shoshinge which I was privileged to publish in the Honganji journal, Daijo, since May 1990, are my attempt to introduce the text to the present age by explaining and re-interpreting unfamiliar terms and concepts which appear in the Shoshinge. It is with great pleasure that, after sixty months, I completed this commentary in May 1995 and those articles have now been compiled and published in this single volume. In the course of revising the text, I have added more hymns from Shinran's wasan to convey his deep feeling and insight to the reader.
　In publishing this work, I owe a debt of inexpressible gratitude to three Australian Shin Buddhists. One is Rev. Jokyo G. Gatenby, who kindly checked the monthly contribution to the Daijo and went over the whole manuscript in the final stage of preparation. The second is Mr. Harold Stewart, a Buddhist poet, who helped me with revision of the first few chapters of this work before he died in August 1995. The third is Rev. Joko Paraskevopoulos, who kindly read the proofs and gave me valuable suggestions. Without their sincere and patient cooperation, this work would not have been completed.

Namu Amida Butsu

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(1) The title

　'Shoshinge,' 'Hymn of True Faith,' is the title popularly used among Shin followers. The full title that appears in the Kyogyoshinsho, Chapter on True Practice, is 'Shoshin nembutsu ge', which literally means 'Hymn of True Faith in Nembutsu.' The author, Shinran Shonin, presumably meant to present in this hymn the faith and practice of Shin Buddhism which constitute the core of the Pure Land tradition transmitted to Japan through China from India.
　Stated simply, 'faith' is trust in Amida, and 'practice' is the Nembutsu recitation. The faith and practice on our side are, at the beginning, naturally based on self-power, and therefore 'defiled' by selfish motivation, but thanks to Amida's virtuous power, these are gradually deepened and purified until the light of shinjin dawns on our spiritual horizon.
　In a general religious context, 'faith' by and large implies 'unquestioning belief in God,' which does not apply in Shin or any other form of authentic Buddhism. Nevertheless, we may well use this term to describe our mental state and attitude in our relation to Amida. We are at least satisfied that 'faith' is derived from the Latin word 'fidere' (to trust) and is actually used in the sense of 'complete trust.'
Faith in Shin Buddhism basically shares the common ground of shraddha with other 　　Buddhist faiths. First of all, it implies complete trust in the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha; secondly, it has the effect of purifying and calming one's mind (prasada); and thirdly, it gives rise to pure aspiration and readiness for action to achieve some Buddhist objective (abhilasa).
　Our faith in Amida and in his law of salvation realized as the Forty-eight Vows and the Name, is awakened by our contact with him through the Pure Land sutras and discourses. When established in our hearts, faith keeps our thoughts fixed on Amida and the Dharma. Through faith, also, we can join the Sangha, which in Shin Buddhism means the Sangha of Bodhisattvas and other holy sages in the Pure Land and our teachers and friends, both priests and laymen, in this world.
As we read and chant the Shoshinge, we hear the live voice of Shinran urging us to take refuge in Amida, the supreme Dharma and the community of true friendship.

　The title "Shoshin nembutsu ge" can be interpreted in different ways. An important doctrinal point is how to understand the relationship between shoshin (faith) and nembutsu. Considering the fact that another hymn of similar content which Shinran composed, presumably in later years, bears the title "Nembutsu shoshin ge," the order of the two words, shoshin and nembutsu, does not seem to constitute a basic difference. Faith without Nembutsu is impossible, and Nembutsu without faith is fruitless. Furthermore, if Nembutsu and faith are based on selfish motivation, they are described as 'self-power faith and practice.' Such faith and practice are impure and so fail to bring true peace of mind with the assurance of Enlightenment.
In the Mahayana system of practice leading to Enlightenment, faith or acceptance of the teaching generally precedes practice. We follow a certain method of practice because we believe that the teaching which prescribes it is true. This pattern does not apply to Shin Buddhism. We do not say the Nembutsu because we believe that it is the cause of our salvation. We say it with no reason whatever on our part. On the one hand, we are too ignorant to discern with certainty between true and false, right and wrong. On the other, in our experience of shinjin the presence of Amida Buddha is beyond any doubt; and so we do not have to believe it.
　Here we are reminded of Shinran's remark recorded in the Tannisho, Chapter 2: "I am entirely ignorant as to whether the Nembutsu is really the cause of birth in the Pure Land, or whether it is the karma which will cause me to fall into hell." To the outsider, this statement may appear to be an expression of uncertain faith, but the fact is that Shinran was fully aware of Amida's irresistible saving power which was working within him "Here and Now."
　We are, from the beginning, ignorant and powerless, but we have unconsciously created a false image of ourselves which we assume to be true and real. Shin Buddhism brings us face to face with our real self, and effectively destroys this illusion of ego. It is painful to face one's own reality. But the whole operation is carried out naturally by Amida's compassionate means. The pain of facing one's ugly and delusory self is more than compensated for by the joy of encountering one's true Parent and finding in him our ultimate refuge.
　Once the Nembutsu is planted in our hearts, it takes root in the deep layers of our minds, where our karma from past lives is stored like the dangerous energy in a dormant volcano or an active fault. Since the Nembutsu is Amida's Mind and Body, it does not belong to me. However many times we recite it, it does not become ours, but remains his. By our complete trust in Amida, we find that we belong to him, not as his servant but as part of his Dharma-Body. The Nembutsu which we find on our lips is a natural expression of Amida's everlasting, universal presence and activity.
Shoshin, or shinjin, and Nembutsu are thus Amida's self-expression through our hearts and mouths. We rejoice at participating in his eternal activity, helping to spread the sound of the Dharma, and making the Voice of Amida heard by other fellow beings. This joy accompanies our shoshin-nembutsu: Namu Amida Butsu.

Those who recite the Name of Amida Buddha
With Sincere Faith
Are always mindful of him
And wish to repay his Benevolence."

(Hymns on the Pure Land 1)

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(2) Adoration to Amida Buddha (lines 1-2)

I take refuge in the Tathagata of Infinite Life;
I take refuge in the Buddha of Inconceivable Light.

The Shoshinge begins with adoration: the author Shinran praises Amida and professes his whole-hearted trust in him. The Tathagata of Infinite Life and the Buddha of Inconceivable Light are one and the same person, but are distinguished in accordance with his two characteristic features. In fact, the Smaller Sutra states that 'Amida' has these two connotations:

For what reason, Shariputra, do you think that Buddha is called 'Amida'? Shariputra, the Buddha's light shines boundlessly and without hindrance over all the worlds in the ten directions. It is for this reason that he is called 'Amida.' Again, Shariputra, the lives of the Buddha and the people of his land last for innumerable, unlimited and incalculable kalpas. It is for this reason that the Buddha is called 'Amida'. (chap. 4)

Amida is the Buddha of Infinite Light and Life, and is often called by his Sanskrit names, Amitabha (infinite light) and Amitayus (infinite life). Furthermore, speaking in terms of light, since Amida's light has twelve qualities or functions, he is given twelve epithets, as mentioned later in the Shoshinge.
The second line comes from T'an-luan's Hymns in Praise of Amida Buddha. In this work, T'an-luan, the Third Patriarch, first praises Amida's supreme virtues in terms of the twelve epithets, and then further glorifies Amida and describes brilliant adornments of the Pure Land based on the Larger Sutra. After that, he expresses his sincere wish to be favored by Amida's Light of Compassion and attain birth in the Pure Land with other aspirants. It is at this point that he states:

I take refuge in the (Buddha of) Inconceivable Light;
With singleness of heart I entrust myself to him, bow to and worship him. (SSZ.I, 365)

It is presumed that here Shinran does not simply praise or adore Amida's Light for its own sake, but wishes that his fellow　beings may equally benefit from the Light of Compassion and attain birth in the Pure Land.
The two qualities or attributes of Amida Buddha, Infinite Life and Light, are suggestive of important points in the Buddhalogical sense. These two can be considered in the relationship of essence and function as well as that of time and space. The Infinite Life represents the essential quality of Dharmakaya, which is not only shared by all Buddhas but also pervades all living beings and even non-sentient existence. From this life-essence emanate pure activities and glorious manifestations, which appear in the form of light. The Larger Sutra describes the endless unfolding of the light as follows:

Lotus-flowers of various jewels fill the Pure Land; each has a hundred thousand kotis of petals with lights of numerous colors.... The brilliance of these lights is so magnificent that it outshines the sun and the moon. Each flower emits thirty-six hundred thousand kotis of rays of light, each sending forth thirty-six hundred thousand kotis of Buddhas.... Each Buddha emits a hundred thousand rays of light and expounds the wonderful Dharma to beings in the ten directions, thus setting innumerable beings on the right Path of the Buddha. (chap. 21)

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(3) Dharmakara's Vows (lines 3-10)

Bodhisattva Dharmakara, in his causal stage,
Was in the presence of Lokeshvararaja, the Enlightened One.
He saw the pure lands of many Buddhas, observed how they had been established,
And examined everything, good and bad, about the humans and gods inhabiting them.
He then brought forth the unsurpassed and most excellent Vows,
The Great Vows, immeasurable in scope and depth, which the world had never heard of.
Dharmakara chose and cherished those Vows after contemplation for five kalpas.
He further vowed that his Name would be heard throughout the ten quarters.

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Amida, as a Sambhogakaya Buddha, does not come into the sphere of our direct sense perception. His presence and activity are far beyond our normal perceptive faculties; they can only be intuitively known in the state of concentration and absorption -- Samadhi. From the beginning of Mahayana Buddhism, we know of a great number of Samadhis which Shakyamuni is presumed to have taught to his disciples. One of them, the Samadhi of Recollection of Amida, known in more general terms as 'Samadhi of Recollection of the Buddha' (Nembutsu-Samadhi), has been the one through which the practicer is enabled to visualize Amida Buddha and his Pure Land. The method based on the Pratyutpanna Samadhi Sutra (The Sutra of Samadhi in which All Buddhas Appear) is simply concentration on Amida and recitation of his Name for seven to ninety days. Nagarjuna recommended the practice of this Samadhi, and Shan-tao, in his works, fully explained and discussed the method and significance of this practice.
Even though we, in the period of Decadent Dharma, are not able to practice this Samadhi and visualize Amida, we are at least convinced of his presence in a spiritual realm far beyond our sense perceptions. This conviction leads us to accept the mysterious truth about Dharmakara Bodhisattva.
The Larger Sutra has the most detailed account of Dharmakara's Bodhisattva practices. This sutra takes us to a certain period in the distant past, when a Buddha, called Lokeshvararaja ('The World-Sovereign-King'), a Nirmanakaya Buddha like Shakyamuni, appeared in this world. There was a king, who, having heard the Buddha's exposition of the Dharma, rejoiced in his heart and awakened aspiration for the highest, perfect Enlightenment. He renounced his kingdom and the throne, and became a monk, named Dharmakara ('Treasury of Dharma').
The awakening of Bodhi-Mind means resolving to become a Buddha. Becoming a Buddha means attaining the three bodies of a Buddha: dharmakaya, sambhogakaya, and nirmanakaya. By the cultivation of the highest wisdom one attains Dharmakaya, the body of the ultimate reality. By the fulfillment of one's vows, one attains Sambhogakaya, the body of bliss, and Nirmanakaya, the transformed body. Since the vows of Bodhisattvas are primarily meant for sentient beings, they seek to establish special "spheres," where, upon their attainment of Buddhahood, those beings who aspire for birth there and fulfill certain prescribed "conditions" are to be born. Such spheres are outside the realms of Samsara and also beyond the static Nirvana. Although they are popularly called "pure lands," they are manifestations from their specific Samadhis. Before Dharmakara made his own vows and planned his pure land, he asked Lokeshvararaja Buddha to show him the pure lands of other Buddhas and how they had been established.
The Larger Sutra describes, in the following words of Shakyamuni Buddha, how Dharmakara learned about the pure lands of other Buddhas and resolved to establish his own:

The Buddha said to Ananda, "...the Bhiksu Dharmakara said to the Buddha Lokeshvararaja, 'Respectfully, World-Honored One, I announce that I have awakened aspiration for the highest, perfect Enlightenment. I beseech you to explain the Dharma to me fully, so that I can perform practices for the establishment of a pure Buddha-land adorned with infinite excellent qualities. So, please teach me how to attain Enlightenment quickly and to remove the roots of affliction of birth-and-death for all.'"
The Buddha said to Ananda, "At that time the Buddha Lokeshvararaja replied to the Bhiksu Dharmakara, 'You yourself should know by what practice you can establish a glorious Buddha-land.' The Bhiksu said to the Buddha, 'That is far too great and deep for my comprehension. I sincerely beseech you, World-Honored One, to explain in detail the practices by which Buddhas, Tathagatas, established their pure lands. After I hear that, I wish to practice as instructed and so fulfill my aspirations.'
At that time the Buddha Lokeshvararaja recognized the Bhiksu Dharmakara's noble and high aspirations, and taught him as follows: 'If, for example, one keeps bailing water out of a great ocean with a pint-measure, one will be able to reach the bottom after many kalpas and then obtain rare treasures. Likewise, if one sincerely, diligently, and unceasingly seeks the Way, one will be able to reach one's destination. What vow is there which cannot be fulfilled?'
Then the Buddha Lokeshvararaja explained in detail the greater and lesser aspects of two hundred and ten kotis of Buddha-lands, together with the good and evil natures of heavenly and human beings living there. He revealed them all to the Bhiksu just as he had requested. Then the Bhiksu, having heard the Buddha's exposition of the glorious pure lands and also having seen all of them, resolved upon his supreme, unsurpassed vows. His mind being serene and his aspirations free of attachment, he was unexcelled throughout the world. For five full kalpas he contemplated the vows, and then chose the pure practices for the establishment of his Buddha-land." (chap. 6)

According to T'an-luan and other masters, when Dharmakara resolved to establish his own pure land, he was already a Bodhisattva of a high stage. [SSZ.I, 287] He had attained a deep samadhi in which he realized voidness of all phenomena and became free from attachment to them and to his own self. At this point, he was completely delivered from karmic bondage, and so there was nothing more to learn or practice for his own salvation. But with deep insight into the ultimate reality, he knew at the same time that sentient beings were infatuated by their own delusory view of ego and driven by insatiable desires, thus repeating endless cycles of birth-and-death, which were both painful and meaningless. This knowledge then gave rise to an irresistible desire to deliver them from self-infatuation and suffering in Samsara. This led to the awakening of Great Compassion. It was out of Great Compassion that Dharmakara sought to establish a pure land where sentient beings could rest in true peace and realize enlightenment.
What is stated in the Larger Sutra concerning Dharmakara's Vows and the Pure Land which he later established may appear to be mythical, but it cannot be stressed too much that this sutra tries to explain in words what actually happened or is happening beyond our world of ordinary experience.
In Buddhism, according to different levels of consciousness fraught with various degrees of karmic defilements, this world of experience, which we call 'Samsara,' is divided into three realms: (1) the realm of desire for those with the lowest level of consciousness and heavy karmic defilements; (2) the realm of form for those with higher level of consciousness and less karmic defilements, which means more freedom in action and more blissful states of existence; and (3) the realm of non-form for those with the highest level of consciousness and the least karmic defilements.
We humans live in the realm of desire, and the spiritual beings, known to us as devas or gods, live in the higher planes of the realm of desire and the realm of non-form. When karmic defilements are completely eliminated, one attains the highest level of consciousness, accompanied by the highest state of bliss and freedom, which is called 'Nirvana.'
Where the individualistic pursuit of the ultimate goal ends, a bodhisattva's 'universal' aspiration begins. By breaking through the Nirvanic tranquility with the power of insight, he discovers his 'universal' personality, and finds himself to be one with all that exists, including all living beings. This discovery gives him an unspeakable joy and exhilaration and, at the same time, a deep sense of responsibility. With infinitely expanding vistas he sees the whole breadth and depth of the universe, which is not only the physical universe we are familiar with, but contains all the spiritual realms of different dimensions. He finds that the entire universe is an organic whole, a living network of interrelated causes and conditions, and the utmost perfection above all dichotomizing concepts. When he sees living beings caught in the net of karma, repeating endless cycles of delusion, wrong-doing, and suffering, he is moved to deliver them by all possible means.
Dharmakara's Vow is based on the common ground of bodhisattvahood, and is a manifestation of this universal awareness in a concrete form. But it distinguishes itself from those of other bodhisattvas in that it provides a way of immediate salvation for the most wicked through the Name and Light that Dharmakara as Amida later attained, leading them to the same enlightenment as his in his land of the highest virtue and pure karmic activity, called Sukhavati.
The whole scheme of salvation in Shin Buddhism centers around the Name: Namu Amida Butsu, literally 'I take refuge in Amida Buddha' or 'adoration to Amida Buddha.' The Name is not just a name in the ordinary sense of the term. It comprises the supreme merits that Dharmakara accumulated by doing various meritorious practices for innumerable kalpas while living among sentient beings. The Larger Sutra describes his career in terms comprehensible to us, as follows:

He did not harbor any thought of greed, hatred or cruelty; nor did he allow any ideas of greed, hatred or cruelty to arise. He was unattached to any form, sound, smell, taste, touch or idea. Possessed of the power to persevere, he did not avoid undergoing various afflictions. Having little desire for his own sake, he knew contentment. Without any impure thought, enmity or stupidity, he dwelt continually in tranquil samadhi. His wisdom was unobstructible, and his mind free of falsehood and deceitfulness. With expression of tenderness in his face and with kindness in his speech, he spoke to others in consonance with their inner thoughts. Courageous and diligent, strong-willed and untiring, he devoted himself solely to the pursuit of the pure Dharma, thereby benefiting a multitude of beings.(chap. 9)

Dharmakara's Vows, unprecedented in scope and depth, were fulfilled by the performance of various meritorious actions, known collectively as the Six Paramitas, lasting for aeons. One life-time was not long enough to cultivate even a small portion of the merits required to fulfill the Vows. His Bodhisattva practice extended over many lives for innumerable kalpas. To explain this, the Larger Sutra says:

He avoided all wrong speech that would bring harm upon himself or others or both; he engaged in right speech that would bring benefit to himself or others or both. He abandoned his kingdom and renounced the throne, leaving behind wealth and sensuous pleasures. Practicing the Six Paramitas himself, he taught others to do the same. During innumerable kalpas, he accumulated merits and amassed virtues. (chap. 9)

Further, this sutra states:

He was reborn as a rich man, a lay devotee, a member of the highest caste or of a noble family, a ksatriya king, a wheel-turning monarch, a king of one of the six heavens in the world of desire, or even higher, as a Brahma-king. He revered and worshipped all Buddhas by making the four kinds of offering to them. The merit he thus acquired was indescribably great. (chap. 9)

The amount of merit and virtue accumulated is dependent upon the length of time of the practice. It is, therefore, natural that Dharmakara should have attained "the ocean-like mass of merits" by performing Bodhisattva practices for innumerable kalpas. What is more important is the moral quality of such merits. If one's action is based on a wrong idea or motivation, it will not yield true merit. In the case of Dharmakara's practice, each and every action was free of attachment and was firmly based on the fundamental Mahayana principle of 'voidness' (shunyata), for it is said in the Larger Sutra:

He dwelt in the realization that all dharmas are empty, devoid of distinctive features, and not to be sought after, and that they neither act nor arise; he thus realized that all dharmas are like magical creations. (chap. 9)

T'an-luan, by way of explaining Dharmakara's true merit, distinguishes two kinds of merit:

Regarding the phrase 'the embodiment of true merit,' there are two kinds of merit: (1) The merit which accrues from the activity of a defiled mind and is not in accordance with the Dharma-essence; such merit arises from the various good acts of ordinary men and gods. It also refers to the reward of their attaining human and heavenly existence. Both the cause and effect of such good acts are inverted and false; hence, they are called 'false merit'. (2) The merit which is produced from the wisdom and pure karma of Bodhisattvas and which serves to glorify Buddhist activities. It conforms to the Dharma-essence and has the characteristic of purity. This dharma is not inverted and false; hence, it is called 'true merit'. [SSZ.I, 284]

The true merits which Dharmakara accumulated are manifested in conceivable, and even perceptible, forms. Vasubandhu, who presumably succeeded in visualizing the Pure Land, distinguished Amida's true merits into three categories: (1) the Pure Land, (2) Amida Buddha himself, and (3) Bodhisattvas in the Pure Land. He also noted that the Power of the Vows was working to sustain those glorious manifestations and, at the same time, to deliver sentient beings from samsaric suffering.
Shinran paid special attention to the name by which Vasubandhu addressed Amida, that is, 'the Tathagata of Light Unhindered throughout the Ten Directions.' To call Amida by this name is to glorify him and praise his virtues. This is a radical development from mere repetition of the popular Nembutsu formula, 'Namu Amida Butsu.' By so doing, Shinran enhanced the quality of the Nembutsu from the level of practice by self-effort to that of the practice of the Buddhas. He found the logical basis for this in the 17th Vow.



The development of the concept of Nembutsu from verbal practice, based on one's effort of saying 'Namu Amida Butsu,' to Amida's working, which irresistibly makes us call his Name, features in Shinran's theory and practice of salvation by the Other-Power. He paid special attention to the 17th and the 18th Vows, and found the intrinsic relationship between them.

In the tradition of Sino-Japanese Pure Land Buddhism, the 18th Vow is the pivotal point around which revolves the whole doctrinal system. In Shin Buddhism, too, the 18th Vow remains the center of the teaching, and so its true meaning is revealed. The text of this Vow reads:

If, when I attain Buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands of the ten directions, who sincerely and joyfully entrust themselves to me, desire to be born in my land and call my Name even ten times, should not be born there, may I not attain perfect Enlightenment. Excluded, however, are those who commit the five gravest offenses and abuse the right Dharma. (chap. 7)

Taken in its literal meaning, both entrusting and calling of the Name are based on self-effort, but Shinran found that Amida's Power was working behind this faith and practice. But how does Amida's Power work and how does it reach the aspirant?

This question led Shinran to investigate the meaning of the 17th Vow, which reads:

If, when I attain Buddhahood, innumerable Buddhas in the lands of the ten directions should not all praise and glorify my Name, may I not attain perfect Enlightenment. (chap. 7)

Apparently this Vow is not directly linked up with the 18th Vow, but Shinran found that the internal relationship between those two Vows was clearly stated in the passage of the Larger Sutra, which shows, in Shakyamuni's words, how they had been fulfilled. The passage in question reads:

All Buddhas, Tathagatas, in the ten directions, as numerous as the sands of the River Ganges, together praise the inconceivable, supernal virtue of the Buddha of Infinite Life. All sentient beings who, having heard his name, rejoice in faith, remember him even once and sincerely transfer the merit of virtuous practices to that land, aspiring to be born there, will attain birth and dwell in the Stage of Non-retrogression. But excluded are those who have committed the five gravest offenses and abused the right Dharma. (chap. 22)

It is now clear that the entrusting and joyous faith is aroused through hearing Amida's Name, which is praised by all the Buddhas. In other words, it is the virtue of the Name that has aroused all the Buddhas to glorify it and also arouses sentient beings to entrust themselves to Amida. Since it is entirely Amida's Power that is working behind the devotee's faith and practice, the real agent who 'transfers the merit of virtuous practices' is also Amida. That is why Shinran, without changing the Chinese diction, made this sentence read:

those who...remember him even once and, through his merit-transference, aspire to be born there, will attain birth, etc. [SSZ.II, 71]

Looking back on the Eighteenth Vow from Shinran's viewpoint, the practice of saying 'Namu Amida Butsu' even ten times is significant only in so far as it is linked up with the Name glorified in the Seventeenth Vow. Our Nembutsu does not come from our heart, but from Amida's Heart of Great Compassion. It is the natural expression on our lips of Amida's all-embracing and all-pervasive Power manifested in the form of the Name. 'The inconceivable, supernal virtue of the Buddha of Infinite Life' stated in the passage of fulfillment of the 17th Vow is the fountainhead of the salvific karmic Power, which runs through the 18th Vow and effects our entrusting faith.
Dharmakara, after proclaiming the Forty-eight Vows, reiterated the importance of the Name in the hymn which follows, saying:

When I attain Buddhahood,
My Name shall be heard throughout the ten directions;
Should there be any place where it is not heard,
May I not attain perfect Enlightenment.

(Larger Sutra, chap. 8)

Shinran praises the wonderful working of the Name in a hymn:

The sentient beings throughout the ten directions,
Who attain true entrusting Heart
By hearing Amida's Name of ultimate virtue,
Greatly rejoice at what they have received.

(Hymns on the Pure Land 25)

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(4) Amida's Light (lines 11-16)

Amida sends forth universally the immeasurable and boundless Light,
The unimpeded, incomparable and majestically flaming Light,
The pure Light, the Light of joy, the Light of wisdom,
The unceasing, inconceivable and ineffable Light,
And the Light outshining the sun and the moon; with these
Lights he shines on the innumerable worlds.
All sentient beings are illumined by his Light.

Dharmakara's Vows having been fulfilled, he became a Buddha, named Amida, ten kalpas ago. In terms of cause and effect, his Forty-eight Vows and sustained practices of the Six Paramitas for innumerable kalpas are the cause of his Buddhahood. Concerning his attainment of Buddhahood, the Larger Sutra explains it in the form of a dialogue between Shakyamuni and Ananda:

Ananda asked the Buddha, "Has the Bodhisattva Dharmakara already attained Buddhahood and then passed into Nirvana? Or has he not yet attained Buddhahood? Or is he dwelling somewhere at present?"
The Buddha replied to Ananda, "The Bodhisattva Dharmakara has already attained Buddhahood and is now dwelling in a western Buddha-land, called 'Peace and Bliss,' a hundred thousand kotis of lands away from here."
Ananda further asked the Buddha, "How much time has passed since he attained Buddhahood?"
The Buddha replied, "Since he attained Buddhahood, about ten kalpas have passed." (chap. 10)

In accordance with the law of karma, when Dharmakara's causal practices matured, he attained the fruition of Buddhahood. Since, as T'an-luan observes, the cause was pure, being in accord with True Suchness, the resultant fruition of Buddhahood, manifested as Amida's glorious appearance and the Pure Land, is also pure. [SSZ.I, 336]

The most illustrious aspect of Amida's Buddhahood is his Light, which is infinite and the most glorious of the lights of all the Buddhas. According to the distinct attributes and functions of Light, Amida has twelve names, as stated in the Larger Sutra: Buddha of Infinite Light, Buddha of Boundless Light, Buddha of Unhindered Light, Buddha of Incomparable Light, Buddha of the Light of the King of Flame, Buddha of Pure Light, Buddha of the Light of Joy, Buddha of the Light of Wisdom, Buddha of Unceasing Light, Buddha of Inconceivable Light, Buddha of Ineffable Light, and Buddha of the Light Outshining the Sun and the Moon. (chap. 11)
Even though we, ordinary beings full of blind passions, are not able to see Amida's Light, we can feel with our bodies and minds that we are always embraced by it. We can indeed 'see' his Light with the eye of Faith endowed by the Other Power.

The Larger Sutra further says:

The Light of the Buddha of Infinite Life shines brilliantly, illuminating all the Buddha-lands of the ten directions. There is no place where it is not perceived. I [Shakyamuni Buddha] am not the only one who now praises his light. All the Buddhas, shravakas, pratyekabuddhas and bodhisattvas praise and glorify it in the same way. If sentient beings, having heard of the majestic virtue of his light, glorify it continually, day and night, with sincerity of heart, they will be able to attain birth in his land, as they wish. (chap. 11)

To praise and glorify Amida's Light is none other than to call his Name, 'Namu Amida Butsu' or 'Kimyo Jinjippo Mugeko Nyorai' (Adoration to the Tathagata of Light Unhindered throughout the Ten Directions). By calling his Name while contemplating his universal and transcendent working, we feel assured that his Light of Great Compassion continually illumines us, even though we tend to be forgetful of it.

Since Amida attained Buddhahood,
Ten kalpas have passed;
The Light of his Dharma-body shines boundlessly,
Illumining those who are spiritually blind and ignorant

(Hymns on the Pure Land 3)

.Far-reaching is the Light of Compassion;
Wherever the Light reaches,
There arises the joy of Dharma.
Take refuge in the Great Consoler.

(Hymns on the Pure Land 10)

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(5) Saving Power of the Vow (lines 17-20)

The Name promised in the Primal Vow is the Act of Right Assurance;
The Vow of Sincere Mind and Joyful Faith provides the cause of our Birth;
To attain the state next to the Buddha and realize Great Nirvana
Is due to the fulfillment of the Vow which assures our unfailing attainment of Nirvana.

Dharmakara's forty-eight Vows can be divided into three groups: (1) those concerning his Buddhahood, namely, the Twelfth Vow which promised that his Light would be immeasurable, the Thirteenth Vow that his Life would be infinite, and the Seventeenth Vow that his Name would be praised by all Buddhas; (2) those concerning his Land, namely, the Thirty-first Vow which promised that his Land would be pure and immaculate and the Thirty-second Vow that his Land would be full of magnificent splendors; and (3) those concerning salvation of living beings, namely, the rest of the Forty-eight Vows.
In each Vow, Dharmakara expressed his firm resolution that unless it were fulfilled he would not become a Buddha. He actually fulfilled these Vows by doing many kinds of meritorious deeds and so became the Buddha of Infinite Life and Infinite Light -- namely, Amida. The Land of immeasurable Light, which on his attainment of Buddhahood came into existence beyond the realms of Samsara , is full of glorious adornments. This is the Land where he dwells everlastingly, welcoming beings from other worlds and enabling them to share the supreme joy of Enlightenment and Nirvana.
The third group of the Vows is further divided into two: the Vows concerning our salvation and those concerning the beings in the Pure Land. The Vows in the second division include those which assure us of acquiring supernatural powers and attaining special samadhis in the Pure Land. The beings born there are completely emancipated from delusions and passions, and so, they are essentially the same as Amida Buddha. But they are described as Bodhisattvas who help him with the work of saving sentient beings.
Of the Vows which directly concern us, the Eighteenth is most important, for through this Vow our salvation is actualized. By working with the Seventeenth Vow, the Eighteenth makes us one with Amida through his Name, Namu Amida Butsu. In other words, Amida comes to us in the form of the Name, and his heart directly enters ours to establish in us the unshakable Faith. This Faith is the cause of Birth in the Pure Land and of subsequent attainment of Enlightenment. Shinran Shonin emphasized that the Faith given by Amida is the Bodhi-Mind containing the Buddha's Wisdom and Compassion. In the Eighteenth Vow this Faith is presented as three minds, namely, Sincere Mind, Joyful Faith, and Desire to be Born in the Pure Land, but they constitute the undivided One Mind, as Vasubandhu professed when he took refuge in Amida in his Discourse on the Pure Land.
The Nembutsu that we utter becomes the Act of Right Assurance if we entrust ourselves wholly to Amida's saving power and let the Name work through our hearts and mouths. Each Nembutsu is Amida's self-expression through us, and each act of worship is the manifestation of his saving activity.
The Eighteenth Vow is the point of our union with Amida. When we come to believe beyond any doubt that Amida is our true Parent, we find it natural that we should be born in his Land and see him face to face. What a joy it will be, as Shan-tao says in his Hymns on the Pratyutpanna Samadhi, to see Amida in his glorious manifestation, seated on the lotus-throne and surrounded by Bodhisattvas, such as Avalokiteshvara and Mahasthamaprapta. (SSZ. I, 704)
Contrary to what many people believe, birth in the Pure Land is not the final objective in Shin Buddhism. Attainment of the same infinite life as Amida and enjoyment of the highest bliss and pleasures are one aspect of the whole fruition which is promised us. The other aspect is attainment of Nirvana, the state of the ultimate tranquility and the pure activity. The first aspect of our spiritual attainment is promised in the Eighteenth Vow, and the second aspect, in the Eleventh Vow.
Speaking in ontological terms, the moment we encounter Amida through the Nembutsu-Faith of the Eighteenth Vow, we realize oneness with Amida, and thus we are immediately emancipated from bondage to Samsara. After the fruits of our past karma, that is, our bodies with all the defilements of blind passions, are relinquished at our bodily death, we will attain Nirvana. This process is shown in the Eleventh Vow -- the Vow assuring our unfailing attainment of Nirvana. This Vow reads:

If, when I attain Buddhahood, humans and gods in my land should not dwell in the Definitely Assured State and unfailingly reach Nirvana, may I not attain perfect Enlightenment. (chap. 7)

We note that this Vow presents two stages of spiritual attainment which are of vital importance to Pure Land aspirants. One is 'dwelling in the Definitely Assured State' and the other, 'attaining Nirvana.' The Larger Sutra clarifies this point by stating:

The Buddha (Shakyamuni) said to Ananda, "Sentient beings who are born in that Buddha-land all reside among those assured of Nirvana. The reason is that in that land there are neither beings who are destined to adverse conditions nor those whose destinies are uncertain.(chap. 22)

If, as the Larger Sutra says, the Pure Land is inhabited only by those who are sure to reach Nirvana, it is reasonable to think that those who will be born there should also be in the Definitely Assured State while in this life of Samsara. This point was emphasized by Shinran Shonin, who says in his Ichinen tanen mon'i (One Thought and Many Callings):

Those who will be born in that land all dwell in the Definitely Assured State, because in that Buddha-land there are neither those destined to the lower realms nor those whose destinies are uncertain. As I understand the teaching of the two Buddhas (i.e. Amida and Shakyamuni), 'immediately (assured of) birth' means abiding in the Definitely Assured State; this further means attaining in the state of Non-retrogression. Since those who dwell in this state unfailingly reach the unsurpassed great Nirvana, they are said to attain the 'state next to the Buddha' or to attain the 'state of Non-retrogression'. (SSZ. II, 606-7)

Besides those terms in the above quotation, there is one more in Shinran Shonin's thought, where he compares such aspirants to the future Buddha by saying that they are 'equal to Maitreya.' Since he is in the highest bodhisattva stage, they are the same because they will become Buddhas in the next life.
What a joy it is to be firmly established in the state of Non-retrogression! Amida has made this possible by transferring all his merit and power through the Name: Namu Amida Butsu.

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(6) Shakyamuni's sacred task (lines 21-24)

The reason for the Buddha's appearance in the world
Is solely to expound the Primal Vow of Amida, wide and deep as the ocean.
All beings in the evil age with five defilements
Should believe in the truth of the Buddha's words.

Shakyamuni Buddha was born into a royal family in India about the 6th century B.C. Having seen the miseries of human existence, he renounced the world and became a mendicant to seek the way of salvation for himself and for all living beings. He tried various methods advocated by his contemporary religious masters, but found them useless in achieving his objective. He finally took to cross-legged meditation, through which he attained the highest perfect wisdom and thus became an Enlightened One -- the Buddha.
Speaking in terms of our common-sense understanding, Shakyamuni was born and died as a man; he became a Buddha at the age of thirty-five and passed into Nirvana at eighty. For forty-five years he expounded the Dharma to people like a physician prescribing different medicines to patients of different illnesses or like an experienced instructor giving appropriate teachings to students of different capacities. Some are meant for the wise, some for those capable of difficult meditative practices, some for those capable of observing the precepts, and so on.
Since human beings are deeply attached to themselves, they are prone to depend on their own power to attain their objectives. It is for this reason that Shakyamuni, by skillful means, first provided them with various methods of 'self-power' practice which would be easier for them to begin with. So he prepared the way for the Other-Power teaching of salvation.
The concept of Buddha differs greatly in Theravada and Mahayana. The Theravada generally follows a pattern of thought acceptable to rational thinking, while the Mahayana presents theories transcending human reason. In the Theravada, Buddhahood is the result of practices over many lives. The Mahayana, while accepting this concept in its Bodhisattva ideal, further reveals a deeper truth which is transcendental and multi-dimensional.
Shakyamuni did not for the first time become a Buddha in India; he is originally a Buddha, an eternal Buddha. According to the Mahayana definition of Buddha, he has three bodies: (1) Dharmakaya, the body of ultimate truth and reality; (2) Sambhogakaya, the body of bliss with glorious manifestations of his supreme merit; and (3) Nirmanakaya, the body of incarnation. The first two bodies represent the transcendental nature of the Buddha, and the third body through his earthly manifestation saves living beings. Thus, in the Lotus Sutra, Shakyamuni is described as an everlasting Buddha, and the Nirvana Sutra stresses the ever presence of Buddhahood.
The relationship between Shakyamuni and Amida is not like that of humans which is based on diverse, and often mutually contradictory, wishes and interests. All Buddhas have one and the same body of truth, the same wisdom and compassion; in other words, they share the same Dharmakaya. Although different methods of salvation and different Buddha-lands are described in Mahayana sutras, they are multi-dimensional contents of the self-same Dharmakaya. T'an-luan in his Commentary on the Pure Land Discourse states that all Buddhas and Bodhisattvas have two kinds of Dharmakaya: (1) Dharmakaya as the ultimate reality, and (2) Dharmakaya as manifested through skillful means. The former is the aspect of universality and equality, and the latter, that of particularity and diversity. It follows then that Shakyamuni and Amida are different but one, one but distinguishable. In the Larger Sutra we find the wonderful accord of Shakyamuni and Amida in their common objective of saving us. In the first place, Shakyamuni became one with Amida in the Samadhi of Great Tranquility, and in that capacity he expounded Amida's Vows. Shinran accepted Amida as a manifested Dharmakaya Buddha and, at the same time, saw in him the universal and everlasting Buddhahood, as he says:

Having entered the Samadhi of Tranquility,
Shakyamuni Buddha manifested his glorious countenance;
Hearing Ananda's wise observation,
The Buddha praised him for asking an appropriate question.

(Hymns on the Pure Land 53)

The Buddha appeared in this world
To reveal the truth of the Primal Vow;
It is extremely difficult to meet a Buddha,
As rare as seeing an udumbara flower.

(Ibid. 54)

Since Amida attained Buddhahood
Ten kalpas have passed, so says the sutra;
But he appears to be an old Buddha,
More ancient than innumerable kalpas of the past.

(Ibid. 55)

We humans have no real control over our lives; we are helplessly at the mercy of our self-created karma. But Enlightened sages, like Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, have not only been liberated from the bondage of karma but have accumulated immeasurable good karma, with which they establish glorious Buddha-lands and engage in endless works of benefiting others. Having realized the ultimate principle of non-duality, they dwell neither in Samsara nor in Nirvana. This means that they have risen above Samsara and Nirvana, but because of the vows made at the outset of the Bodhisattva's career, they freely enter into samsaric worlds to save those beings who suffer there.
When Shakyamuni was born in this world, did he have a definite objective in view? This has been a popular topic of discussion among Buddhists for many centuries. Each school or sect has its own argument to claim that its teaching is the highest representing the Buddha's real intention and that other teachings were set forth as expedient means for those not yet ready to receive the ultimate teaching. Thus Zen, for example, asserts that the Buddha-Mind transmitted directly from Shakyamuni outside the written scriptures is the core of Zen and is superior to other approaches which are based on them. Tendai has an elaborate system of classification of the Buddha's teachings to prove that Tendai upholds the highest doctrine. Shingon claims that the esoteric doctrine revealed by the Dharmakaya Buddha, Mahavairocana, is far superior to exoteric ways.
Life is not long enough to study all the practices to find the best. Even if we do enjoy a long life, it would be all but impossible to practice meditation as prescribed and to observe the precepts required for successful practice.
According to Shinran, the real intention of the Buddha's appearance in the world was to expound the Larger Sutra and save beings through the Nembutsu. In the Kyogyoshinsho, chapter on True Teaching, Shinran first declares that the True Teaching is the Larger Sutra and then explains its essentials as follows:

Amida Buddha made the unsurpassed Vow and opened widely the Dharma-store; taking pity on men of limited capacities, he selected the treasure of virtues (i.e. Amida's Name) and bestowed it upon them. Shakyamuni appeared in this world and expounded various teachings, but particularly desired to save multitudes of beings by endowing them with the true benefit of the Name. Thus the primary intention of this sutra is to expound Amida's Primal Vow, and the essence of the sutra is his Name. (SSZ.II, 2-3)

Shinran's teacher, Honen, was dedicated wholly to the Nembutsu and recommended it to all, saying that it is the easiest and yet the supreme practice. While following Honen's teaching, Shinran went a step further and made clear that the Name and the Vow are actually working behind our recitation of the Nembutsu, not our own power. He thus cautioned us against reliance on our self-power which is both limited and defiled by blind passions.
Shinran's Other-Power teaching is clearly distinguished from the rest of the teachings of Shakyamuni which emphasize cultivation of wisdom by one's own power. Even if one follows a path of self-power, one will eventually realize that what actually enlightens one is the Power of the Buddha. When we come to take refuge in Amida, our eyes are opened to his boundless Wisdom, Compassion, and Power. Then we will see that there is nothing in the world that is not pervaded by Amida. As such Amida is appropriately called 'the Tathagata of Unhindered Light Shining throughout the Ten Directions.' He made himself known to us through the Amida-Samadhi, and later the whole truth about Amida was related in the Larger Sutra. When we receive this sutra with joyful faith, we find ourselves bathed in the Light of Amida's Great Compassion.

Attaining Buddhahood through the Nembutsu is the teaching of the True Religion;
Ten thousand practices and various acts of merit are temporary teachings.
Unable to distinguish the true and real teaching from temporary and provisional,
Many fail to see the path to the Pure Land of Naturalness.

(Hymns on the Pure Land 71)

Sentient beings, having remained long in the expedient ways
Of temporary and provisional teachings in the Path of Sages.
Have been subject to transmigration in Samsara.
Take refuge in the Ultimate Teaching of Great Compassion.

(Ibid. 72)

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(7) Amida's salvation: Emancipation from karmic bondage (lines 25-28)

If the single thought of Joy and Gratitude is awakened in us,
We shall realize Nirvana without severing our blind passions.
Ordinary people, sages, those who commit the gravest offenses,
and abusers of the Dharma are equally led to the Land beyond,
Just as many rivers become of one taste upon entering the sea.

The English term 'salvation' as used loosely in Shin Buddhism has a different connotation from that in other religions. Usually, this term, like the other key-word, 'faith,' presupposes three elements: (1) the existence of a certain divine being who is the savior, (2) those to be saved, and (3) the act of saving in response to their needs and request. Salvation will mean that through the special favor or grace of the divine being the faithful are delivered from their conditions of suffering and enabled to enjoy a happier life here and hereafter.
In Shin Buddhism (and for that matter in other forms of authentic Buddhism), there is no favor or grace to be given to special individuals. If one has gained what appears to be a special grace of Amida and attained shinjin, it is not because of the devotion which has been offered up to Amida, but in accordance with the law of karma, which was explored to its depth and fully utilized by Dharmakara.
At all levels of existence, from the lowest hell to the Buddha-lands, the law of karma reigns with irresistible force. Those in the states of samsaric existence, including ourselves, are ignorant of this law and unable to use it for spiritual elevation. We are given to greed, anger and stupidity, and unawares allow ourselves to be at the mercy of karmic power.
Thus the first lesson in Buddhism is to know clearly how the law of karma is working at the level of our existence. We are taught that good acts bring about happiness and evil ones, suffering. Then we learn about ways of improving our karma: first the moral teaching which promises rebirth in heavenly realms in the world of desire; then meditation exercises which purify our karma and, if successfully practiced, will bring about its due reward in still higher spiritual realms of form and non-form. At a more advanced level, we learn how to put an end to our karmic activities so that we will not endure any more suffering in samsaric existence but dwell in the everlasting bliss of Nirvana.
In the earlier teaching of Buddhism, the existence of an individual is explained as a composite of the five aggregates (skandha). This is not a mere conglomeration of elements to be thought of objectively in mathematical or scientific terms, but some latent subjective agent that brings together constituent elements is alluded to, without admitting the existence of a permanent self, called 'atman'. In the Buddhist theory of karma, it is the momentum of psycho-physical energy that collects various elements to form an individual. If one does evil deeds, one's karma collects the elements which are unpleasant and not beneficial to oneself and others; in the extreme case, the torments of hell. If, on the contrary, one does good deeds, one's karma is purified and attracts the elements which are pleasant and beneficial. In the process of purification, one's karma absorbs subtle material elements and, in a still more advanced stage, only spiritual elements. In the final stage, as one's karma is totally extinguished, it ceases to draw to itself any physical or mental element, leaving the complete serenity and bliss of Nirvana to pervade everywhere, into which the subjective agent itself merges as well.
That is not the whole story of the karmic law. Mahayana Buddhism gives the concept of karma new dimensions of meaning. First, it reveals that the law of karma is not restricted to individual beings but, in its subtle and deeper aspect, is working at the root of their karmic activities. In this sense, the theory of universal interrelation or dependent origination (pratitya-samutpada) should be considered as connected with the law of karma.
How one's evil karma is removed or compensated for is the most important practical problem in any Buddhist school. In the Pure Land tradition in general, the efficacy of the Nembutsu is emphasized over and beyond other practices. The Contemplation Sutra states that the Nembutsu can destroy even the worst karmic transgression and become the cause of birth in the Pure Land. The Third Master T'an-luan took great pains in his Commentary on the Discourse on the Pure Land to explain how this is possible. He first raises a question:

Some sutras explaining the law of karma state that it is like a balance, which a heavier object pulls down. According to the Contemplation Sutra, those who have committed the five deadly transgressions and the ten evil acts and those with various adverse karma, will fall into the lowest realms, where they will pass many kalpas undergoing immeasurable sufferings. But if, at their death, they meet with a good friend, who urges them to recite the Nembutsu, and so repeat it ten times continually with sincere heart, then they will attain birth in the Pure Land of Peace and Bliss. There they will join the group of those who are rightly established in the Mahayana. Thus, they will not retrogress from the attainment of Enlightenment and will forever be free from various sufferings in the three evil realms. How is this explained in the light of the law of karma according to which a heavier load pulls one down? Furthermore, from the beginningless past, sentient beings have been immersed in various defilements and so they are tied to the three worlds of Samsara. If they can attain emancipation from the three worlds by merely remembering Amida Buddha with ten repetitions of the Nembutsu, what will become of the bondage of karma?

To this question, which is a perennial one for all Shin Buddhists, T'an-luan gives the following answer:

You consider the bondage of karma, such as the five deadly transgressions and the ten evil acts, as heavy, and the ten repetitions of the Name by a man of the lowest level of the lowest grade as light.... Whether a certain act creates dominant karmic force or not is dependent on (1) the state of mind, (2) its object, and (3) the degree of concentration, and not by length of time. (1) The state of mind: The evildoer in question has committed evils in a false and inverted state of mind, whereas the ten repetitions of the Name arise when he hears the teaching of Truth from a good friend. One is true and the other false. How can you compare them? Suppose there is a room which has been dark for a thousand years. If a light is cast into the room even for a short while, the room will instantly become bright. How could the darkness refuse to leave because it has been there for a thousand years?
(2) The object of mind: With deluded thoughts the evildoer has committed vicious acts to other sentient beings who have also come into existence as the result of evil passions and delusive thoughts. Ten repetitions of the Nembutsu arise from the unsurpassed Faith taking as its object the Name of Amida Buddha who has a glorious body of upaya (skillful means) and comprises immeasurable merits which are pure and true....
(3) The degree of concentration: The evildoer who has committed transgressions expects some result, and so his mind is distracted by other thoughts. Ten repetitions of the Nembutsu are based on a state of mind which does not anticipate any result and is, therefore, not deluded by other thoughts. From the above observation it is clear that ten repetitions of the Nembutsu are stronger than the five deadly transgressions or the ten evil acts, and so it prevails, enabling the evildoer to escape from the three worlds.

Although Master T'an-luan mentions 'unsurpassed Faith' which underlies the repetitions of the Nembutsu, his general tone is that he admits the efficacy of the devotee's concentrated practice of it. For Shinran Shonin the Other-Power Faith is of paramount importance, and Nembutsu practice is not the prerequisite for birth in the Pure Land. But it should be emphasized that one who attains Faith, spontaneously achieves a high degree of concentration, in which one is totally encompassed by Amida and the Nembutsu continually arises in one's mind.

Conversion from self-power teachings to the Other-Power Way means a complete change in the basis for one's existence, accompanied by a reversal in the course of our karma. When the Contemplation Sutra explains the salvation of wicked persons through the Nembutsu, it refers to two aspects: (1) explicitly, the method of practice that the devotee should follow and (2) implicitly, Amida's saving power originating from his Vows. The explicit teaching of this sutra does encourage concentrated practice of the Nembutsu, and so, the Pure Land masters in China and Japan generally followed this and further developed systems of practice centering on the Nembutsu. But implicitly the Contemplation Sutra reveals the Other-Power aspect which is fully explained in the Larger Sutra. These two sutras had apparently separate origins and different courses of transmission, but in China they joined together to form a major current of Pure Land thought flowing through the whole history of Chinese Buddhism.

The relationship between the Name, Nembutsu and shinjin (Faith) is a delicate one, which needs to be clarified by the expositions in the sutras and by our experience of salvation. In the Contemplation Sutra, in which the Nembutsu is first applied to grave karmic transgressors on their deathbeds, they are simply taught to say the Nembutsu because it is the most effective prescription for those who need immediate help. The evildoers mentioned in this sutra as those of "the lowest level of the lowest grade" have committed the gravest offenses and various evils, and so, at their death, they are naturally full of agony and are terrified by the fearful signs of karmic retribution. Under these circumstances, they have no ears to listen to the Dharma and no time to reflect on the evils that they have committed. The Nembutsu given at that ultimate moment can penetrate to the depth of their minds and find its expression on their lips as "Namu Amida Butsu." The Nembutsu thus received in the mind and repeated with the voice has the effect of reversing the whole course of their karma, leading them safely to the realm of Enlightenment -- the Pure Land.
T'an-luan's explanation of the efficacy of the Nembutsu, which was quoted above is relevant to the essential nature and working of the Name. Following the explicit teaching of the Contemplation Sutra, T'an-luan says that the Nembutsu which the evildoer says at the time of his death is the sufficient cause of his birth in the Pure Land, but T'an-luan implicitly refers to the Larger Sutra when he says, as quoted before, that the Nembutsu "arises from the unsurpassed Faith taking as its object the Name of Amida Buddha which ... comprises immeasurable merits." This explanation can be taken to mean that the truly efficacious Nembutsu must come from the Other-Power Faith and that such Nembutsu arises as Amida's self-expression through the Name.
Salvation in Shin Buddhism, as set forth straightforwardly by Shinran Shonin, reverses the popular belief in the efficacy of the Nembutsu based on one's power. He takes great pains in showing that the Nembutsu is nothing but the Name in action. When received deeply in the mind, the Name gives rise to Faith; then the Name expresses itself as the Nembutsu of acknowledgement and gratitude. Whether the Nembutsu is true or not is thus dependent on the state of mind in which it is practiced. A Nembutsu devotee without Faith has no settled mind (anjin); when the Name is correctly received in the devotee's mind, Amida's Wisdom, Compassion and merits are also transferred to him at the same time. Such a state of mind is called shinjin, and for the Nembutsu practicer of shinjin, true joy of salvation and gratitude to Amida naturally accompany the Nembutsu.
Even though we lack sincerity of heart and deep faith in the Dharma and also are incapable of diligent practice of the Buddhist Path, we are enabled by the Power of Amida's Vow to participate in the Great Work of Mahayana Bodhisattvahood. The "single thought of Joy and Gratitude" awakened in us marks the moment of our entry into this spiritual realm of truth and happiness.

Those who attain Serene Faith of Joy,
Rejoicing greatly in a moment of spiritual unity with Amida,
Through the Vow of Universal Salvation,
Shall be born in the Pure Land without fail.

(Hymns on the Pure Land 26)

'Salvation' in Shin Buddhism means, above anything else, liberation from the bondage of karma. Since our defiled karma is created by our blind passions, which arise from our basic ignorance, our bondage to karma cannot be eliminated without removing our blind passions and ignorance. Let us first clarify the causal relationships between ignorance, blind passions, and the state of karma-bondage in accordance with the fundamental Buddhist theory of the "twelve causations."
As we all know, the Buddha Shakyamuni's renunciation of the world was motivated by a quest for the cause of the suffering of life. After six years' search for the answer, he finally found it while sitting in meditation under the Bodhi-tree. As he meditated deeply on the painful reality of life, he discovered that the condition of life and death was caused by the state of existence. Next, he found that the state of existence was caused by grasping. In that way, his meditation brought him deeper and deeper inside, until he came to the ignorance at the base of his existence. The moment he realized it, that ignorance was gone and thus he attained Enlightenment.
Since, in Shin Buddhism, salvation is achieved when we receive Amida's wisdom, compassion and merits through the Name, settling of shinjin should mean elimination of this basic ignorance. Let us first examine the implications of the twelve causations. (1) Ignorance (avidya), which lurks in the depth of our existence; it covers up the mind at its root and hinders it from perceiving the ultimate reality. (2) Conditioned by ignorance, blind volition or force (samskara) arises; this is the karmic energy before one's individual character is formed. (3) Next, consciousness (vijnana) arises; this is explained as the 'apperceptional principle' or the 'life-potency of the sensory side of individuality', which may be considered as the subconscious or pre-conscious activity. (4) Next, conditioned by consciousness, 'name and form' (nama-rupa) are produced; they are the immaterial and material factors which together constitute an individual existence. (5) Next arise the six sense-organs (sad-ayatana), i.e., eyes, ears, nose, tongue, tactile organ, and mind, followed by (6) contact with the external objects (sparsha), and (7) sensations (vedana). (8) Next desire for pleasure (trisna) arises; this includes strong craving and lust, and represents all evil passions. (9) Next arises the act of grasping what one desires (upadana), which is followed by (10) the state of existence (bhava). (11) Then, birth (jati) and (12) decay and death (jara-marana) occur.
The twelve causations reveal many inner facts about our samsaric existence. According to the popular view in early Buddhism, the first two are related to the cause in the past life, the next five are their results in the present life, and the following three, i.e., from desire to the state of existence, act as the cause of the next life; the last two are their result. In order to attain liberation from the cycle of samsaric causations, one must get rid of 'desire' and 'ignorance'.
The Buddha taught us various methods of liberation, each in correspondence with an individual's propensity and capacity. But it is clearly all but impossible to remove, with our own power, the factors which constitute our existence. Since all our efforts are defiled by 'desire' and 'ignorance', how can we make 'pure' efforts? The answer is given by the Buddha himself and the Pure Land masters. The Seven Masters invariably taught that we should avail ourselves of Amida's Power of the Vow. The heart of trusting in the Power of the Vow is shinjin. Since this heart does not arise from our defiled minds but is Amida's Mind given to us, it is free of defilements. The moment we receive it, or rather we are received by Amida, our spiritual darkness is gone. Even though we have not yet severed blind passions, their roots have already been cut, so that they will not bear the fruit of suffering in Samsara. Thus attainment of Nirvana is promised us. After relinquishing the causes and effects of the samsaric existence, we will forever enjoy the pleasure of the Dharma for ourselves and help others to enjoy it as well.
The term 'salvation' is interpreted in various ways in different religions. Within Buddhism, this term has different meanings in Hinayana and Mahayana. Even within the Mahayana, various schools and sects give this term specific meanings. There are at least three clearly distinguishable levels of understanding about 'salvation.' The first is the common-sense level, in which this term is used in a socio-religious sense. For example, to remove social evils and help the destitute and handicapped people is the popular activity of salvation. Since religious organizations exist in society, they are expected to fulfill their functions to remove causes of social evils and sufferings and establish a better society. So it is natural that every religious organization should have this aspect of activity, but the emphasis placed on it varies in each religion. Right from the beginning, Buddhism has had this aspect of salvation in its teaching, but the idea behind it has been above the level of morality or sociological concerns. While encouraging its followers to be kind to all living beings and engage in social welfare activities, Buddhism primarily aims at removing the root-cause of their sufferings.
The second level is attained by turning one's attention to the subjective self. This does not simply mean introspection or reflection on oneself in the ordinary sense of the term, nor does it involve deepening of one's guilty feelings for social evils. The focal point of understanding of the meaning of 'salvation' on this level is the law of karma. On the first common-sense level, the law of karma as taught in Buddhism is not yet fully appreciated. It has no deeper meaning to ordinary people than a didactic teaching. On the second level, one learns the law of karma as a guide to understanding the root-cause of sufferings. But we must be careful not to mix up the Buddhist teaching of the law of karma with the Hindu concepts of karma. Both believe in transmigration and propose methods of attaining liberation from it, but Buddhism is different from the ordinary Hindu views in not admitting the permanent self (atman).
Buddhism conceives of one's existence as a process of becoming in the nexus of causal relationships. Of the twelve links of causations, we find that the first three, i.e., ignorance, blind volition, and consciousness, are the most important in the formation of one's existence but, because of the deep-seated ignorance in the mind, easily escapes clarification even by great religious and philosophical thinkers of the past and present. These three elements form the murky area of the unknown force, which threatens one's existence from underneath and fills one with indefinable fear and anxiety. This anxiety intrinsic to one's existence could sometimes drive one to violent acts or fanatic faiths; this is the nursery of various superstitions and wrong views. From the Buddhist viewpoint, this is the area where one's karmic seeds are accumulated and 'fermented' until they become mature and are manifested as mental and bodily actions. When this area is completely illumined by the light of wisdom, one attains liberation.
The third level is beyond the first two but, at the same time, includes them. In the Mahayana concept of salvation, an individual's liberation from delusion and suffering cannot be completed until and unless all sentient beings attain the same liberation. The awareness of the universal relationship with them gives rise to the resolution to save them all; this resolution turns one into a Bodhisattva. When Amida was a Bodhisattva, he made this resolution in the form of the Forty-eight Vows. Now that they have been fulfilled, he has already accomplished our salvation. The moment we hear the Name and, through it, attain shinjin, we realize that we have been in his Light of boundless Wisdom and Compassion. With the darkness of mind completely cleared, we everlastingly enjoy oneness with Amida Buddha. In the ocean of Amida's Wisdom, there is no discrimination between bombu and sages, evil-doers and good persons. They are equally taken in and never abandoned, and become one with Amida just as various river-waters are turned into one taste upon reaching the ocean.

The Buddha's Wisdom and Virtue have been praised
So that sentient beings in the ten directions may know about them;
Those who have attained Faith should always
Strive to repay the Buddha's Benevolence.

(Hymns on the Pure Land 50)

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(8) Living in the Light of Great Compassion (lines 29-34)

The Light of all-embracing Compassion always illumines and protects us;
The darkness of ignorance has already been destroyed by it,
But the clouds and mists of greed, desire, anger and enmity
Continually cover the sky of True Faith.
Be that as it may, just as the sunlight is blocked by clouds or mists,
Below them it is light and there is no darkness.

The difference between ordinary people and Shin Buddhists does not show in outward appearance, but is clearly found in their spiritual lives. First of all, Shin Buddhists are aware of Amida's Light of Great Compassion and so can enjoy its benefit, while ordinary people, ignorant of it, continue to walk in the dark. Second, Shin Buddhists are aware of their evil passions in their entirety, not through their own intellect or insight, but through Amida's Light; ordinary people may know part of their evil passions but are unable to see them all. Mere reflection does not go deep into oneself, nor can psychoanalysis possibly analyze away all that one has beneath one's consciousness. Meditation, when practiced under the proper guidance of a truly enlightened master, can penetrate deeper into one's mind, but does not necessarily promise a successful result.
Amida's Light which, above anything else, embodies Prajna can penetrate to the depth of one's self and break its hard existential basis, bringing one to the realization that there is nothing that supports one's existence but a false image of ego. When the Light is perceived in us, all our evil passions and their karmic energy stored in our Alaya consciousness are instantly cleared, or rather merged into Amida's pure merits. Even though there still is a lingering tendency of passions, which beclouds our minds, we are basically free of the fear and anxiety that are believed to be inherent in our nature.
Amida's Light takes various forms according to the conditions and needs of the beings to be saved, and functions in multiple ways. Since Amida has three "bodies," his Light can also be conceived to be of three kinds corresponding to them. First, Amida as the Dharmakaya Buddha sends forth the Light of non-discriminative Wisdom which is in perfect accord with True Suchness. This Light is all-pervasive and all-merging. In fact, there is in it no subject-object distinction, and things as they are are clearly revealed in this, the Light of the ultimate Truth.
Amida as the Sambhogakaya Buddha is a bodily manifestation. He has, therefore, the physical Light emitted from his body, as well as the spiritual Light emanating from his mind. The physical Light, as the Contemplation Sutra explains, "illuminates all the worlds throughout the ten directions." There is no place where that Light does not reach, but not all sentient beings are aware of this -- indeed, very few realize it. When one hears the Dharma well and receives Amida's Compassion deep in one's heart, Amida's Light "embraces and never abandons this person."
The Light of Amida as a Nirmanakaya creates various images for sincere devotees, appearing in their dreams or at the time of death to guide them to the Pure Land.
Since the three Buddha-bodies are not separate but are an integrated whole, we simply look up to Amida as 'Jinjippo Mukeko Nyorai' -- the Tathagata of Unhindered Light Shining throughout the Ten Quarters. In the pure religious feeling arising from True Faith, there is no room for knowledge obtained by analytical methods. Even the knowledge of ourselves being full of evil passions does not remain in the mind as a stern and painful reminder. We realize that this knowledge does not come from our insight but is an image of ourselves reflected in the mirror of Amida's Wisdom. Any piece of knowledge, whether of Amida or ourselves, can become an obstacle to full realization of Amida's Compassion. If our knowledge is merged into Amida's Wisdom, we simply enjoy living in his Light without fear and sorrow.

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(9) Life of a myokonin (lines 35-40)

When we receive Faith, regard and revere the Dharma, and attain Great Joy,
We instantly transcend the five evil realms.
If ordinary people, whether they are good or evil,
Hear the Dharma and trust Amida's Universal Vow,
Shakyamuni praises them as 'men of great and superior understanding';
Such people are called 'white lotus-flowers.'

The Larger Sutra expressly states in the Verses on the Visits of Bodhisattvas to the Pure Land (chap. 27):

To obtain human life is difficult in the extreme;
To meet a Buddha in this world is also difficult;
It is difficult, too, for a man to attain faith and wisdom.
Once you have heard the Dharma, strive to reach its heart.

If you have heard the Dharma and do not forget it
But regard and revere it with great joy,
You are my good friend. For this reason,
You should awaken aspiration for Enlightenment.

Even if the whole world is on fire,
Be sure to pass through it to hear the Dharma;
Then you will surely enter the Path of the Buddha
And everywhere deliver beings from the river of birth-and-death.

Contrary to the popular misunderstanding that Shin Buddhism is an easy-going teaching requiring no effort on our side, this sutra further stresses the importance of our diligent pursuit of the Way as follows (chap. 31):

That land is sublime, blissful, serene and pure. Why do you not diligently practice the good, reflect on the Naturalness of the Way and realize that it is above all discriminations and is boundlessly pervasive? You should each make a great effort to attain it. Strive to escape from Samsara and be born in the Land of Peace and Provision. Then, the cause of the five evil realms having been destroyed, they will naturally cease to be, and so you will progress unhindered in your pursuit of the Way. The Pure Land is easy to reach, but very few actually go there. It rejects nobody, but naturally and unfailingly attracts beings. Why do you not abandon worldly matters and strive to enter the Way?

Shinran has repeated in the first two lines the import of the verses and the passage quoted above, but does not encourage practicing good, meritorious acts. In his Shin Buddhist system, all meritorious practices conducive to the attainment of Enlightenment in the Pure Land are attributed to Amida Buddha. Since we are incapable of any practice, as Shinran is quoted as saying in the Tannisho, hell would definitely be our dwelling place. Good acts which we think we can do are, at best, false and inverted, and cannot possibly yield the merits we require for attaining Enlightenment. Actually we can do nothing but commit evil karma. This is the conclusion Shinran reached after his twenty years' quest for Truth on Mount Hiei. When he descended from the mountain, he left behind all the false visions of himself being capable of pursuing the good. Later, when he encountered Honen's Nembutsu teaching, he found in it the Dharma in action, which had been pursuing him to carry him across the river of birth-and-death. This Dharma is the embodiment of ultimate truth and pure merits, which is given to us through the Name. To hear and receive this Dharma means to join the stream of pure karmic activity of the Original Vow.

When we hear and receive Amida's Dharma, we are awakened to twofold reality: (1) that we are full of evil passions, karma-bound and incapable of salvation with our own power and (2) that Amida with boundless saving power embraces and never forsakes us. In this awareness, however, we no longer stand in opposition to Amida, but we find our true identity in Amida, just as a child finds its identity in the mother's love. When we realize our true identity, all the false identities superimposed upon it fall off, and then we are able to walk along the Buddhist Path in the light of Wisdom and Compassion.
One who has correctly received Amida's Dharma and thereby awakened shinjin is praised by Shakyamuni as 'a person of great and superior understanding.' This phrase comes from the Section on the Teaching Assembly of Amitayus Tathagata, another Chinese version of the Larger Sutra, which says (SSZ, I, 212):

Those who have in the past worshiped and made offerings to innumerable Buddhas will be enabled by the power of those Buddhas to enter this Great Dharma and be praised joyfully by all the Tathagatas. Those who receive and hold fast to this Dharma will attain immense all-knowing wisdom and cultivate good roots as they wish. Those good men and women who attain great and superior understanding of this Dharma should further hear and greatly rejoice in it, hold fast to it, chant and expound it to others, and constantly follow it with joy.

Since our true identity is in Namu amida butsu, through the Nembutsu we keep reminding ourselves of it and express our gratitude to Amida for enabling us to realize our selves.
Those who receive Amida's Dharma have not only superior understanding and insight into reality, but also attain wonderful personality, as it is said in the Contemplation Sutra (chap. 32):

You should know that all who are mindful of that Buddha are like white lotus-flowers among humankind; the Bodhisattvas Avalokiteshvara and Mahasthamaprapta become their good friends. They will sit in the place of Enlightenment and be born into the family of the Buddhas.

Even though mired by evil passions, we are nevertheless 'white lotus-flowers' if our minds are firmly set on the Nembutsu. Shan-tao, in his celebrated commentary on the Contemplation Sutra, gives five other words of high praise to the practicer of the Nembutsu (SSZ, I, 558): (1) konin, an excellent person, (2) jojonin, a superior person, (3) myokonin, a wondrous, excellent person, (4) keunin, a rare person, and (5) saishonin, a most excellent person.
Contrary to the popular concept, a myokonin is not a special type of person, but is applied to anyone who lives up to the Nembutsu. A myokonin is fully aware of his or her true identity, grateful to Amida and his Bodhisattva incarnations, Avalokiteshvara and Mahasthamaprapta, and seeks to share their Compassion with other beings. Thus a myokonin is a person of deep insight and warm personality. Although a myokonin is still full of evil passions like other ordinary, unenlightened persons, those passions do not hinder him or her from performing Buddhist activities, for they have already been cut at the root and absorbed into Amida's pure merit. Evil passions make troubles when they are left to run their course unbridled; when properly dealt with, they turn into pure karmic energy. In the Kyogyoshinsho, Chapter on True Faith, Shinran explains that a person of shinjin gains ten benefits in this life, of which the third is the benefit of having evil turned into good. This benefit is made ours through Amida's wonderful virtue. It is said in one of Shinran's hymns on T'an-luan:

When many rivers of evil passions enter
Into the ocean of the Great Compassion and Great Vow
Of the Tathagata of All-pervasive Unhindered Light,
They become one in taste with the water of Wisdom.

(Hymns on the Patriarchs 42)

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(10) The Way of the Nembutsu-Faith (lines 41-44)

The Nembutsu promised in the Original Vow of Amida Buddha
Is difficult to receive and retain with joyous Faith
For evil persons who have wrong views and are arrogant;
Of all difficulties nothing is more difficult than that.

We find in the Kyogyoshinsho, chapter on True Practice, many passages quoted as evidence to show the supreme merit and efficacy of the Nembutsu. One of them, from Tao-ch'o's Collection of Passages Concerning Birth in the Land of Peace and Bliss, has this to say (SSZ, I, 381):

Shakyamuni advised his father the King to practice the Nembutsu Samadhi. The King asked the Buddha, 'Why do you not recommend the practice of realizing directly the Buddha's virtue, True Suchness or the highest principle of voidness?' The Buddha replied, 'The Buddhas' virtue of Enlightenment contains immeasurable and subtle realms of realization accompanied by various supernatural powers and knowledge of emancipation, which are not objects of perception for an unenlightened person. For this reason, I recommend to you, my father the King, the Nembutsu Samadhi.

Idealist Buddhists may try to enter straightaway into the heart of the Buddhas' Enlightenment, but their limited capacities and evil passions inevitably create an iron barrier which defies their penetration. The Nembutsu Samadhi comes from Amida's Heart and reaches each one of those who humbly respond to his Call. The Nembutsu Samadhi is not only practicable, but is the most efficacious of all samadhis. The passage quoted above goes on to explain that in the following parable (SSZ, I, 381-2):

Suppose there is a big forest of foul-smelling eranda trees, in which there is a young sandalwood tree still under the ground. When this tree grows above the ground, its fragrance pervades the whole forest and transforms it into a sweet-smelling forest.

The eranda forest refers to our evil passions and defiled thoughts, and the sandalwood tree refers to the Nembutsu. A single thought of concentration on and communication with the Buddha, which is actually made possible by his boundless Mind Power, is capable of turning our evil karma into the same merit as Amida's.
No other Buddhist practice is easier to follow than the Nembutsu Samadhi, but for those who are misled by wrong teachings and believe in their own power, the Nembutsu of the Other-Power is extremely difficult to accept. In this regard we read in the Larger Sutra, in the Verses on the Visits of Bodhisattvas to the Pure Land (chap. 27):

Arrogant, corrupt and indolent people
Cannot readily accept this teaching.
But those who have met Buddhas in their past lives
Rejoice to hear it.

Shinran Shonin calls wrong-viewed and arrogant people 'evil' in the sense that they reject the right Dharma and the law of karma and so take the path to degeneration and destruction. But who are not wrong-viewed until and unless they encounter Amida, the embodiment of the right Dharma? Also, who are not arrogant unless they meet Amida's Light of Great Compassion? We are by nature self-centered, and our frame of thought is naturally constructed on the blind belief in the ego and the power which it appears to possess. As we hear and ponder on the Dharma over and over, we come to realize that what exists in the true sense of the term is the Buddha's Life, Amida, which is all-pervasive, all-inclusive and everlasting. When our eyes are opened to this ultimate reality by being endowed with the Nembutsu-Faith, all our delusory mental constructs disappear like dew on a blade of grass in the morning sun.

Shakyamuni and Amida are our Compassionate Parents;
By employing various skillful means
Have awakened in our minds
The supreme Faith beyond compare.

(Hymns on the Patriarchs 74)

Go to Part 2; return to Top; Nembutsu-Index; Index.