A view of some impressive Boston architechture from the street

Despite humanity’s continual efforts to conquer and dominate the earth, Mother Nature still rules over the planet, as she has, and will continue, for eons. Although humans have built impressive cities as testament to the success of our species, the urban environment has been, is, and will be shaped by natural process uncontrollable by man. Although we have learned to divert water, transport waste, redirect wind, funnel traffic, and preserve green space in our cities, there will always be evidence of nature’s presence in the concrete jungle. Natural processes continue to affect life in the city, sometimes in unexpected and spectacularly powerful ways. Whether it’s a deep crack in the pavement due to rising groundwater, or a tree growing horizontally to stretch toward sunlight, nature leaves clues to its activities all over the city. After learning and understand what clues to look for, one can start to see patterns and processes everywhere in the city. In the 4 square blocks starting at the intersection of Commonwealth Ave. and Clarendon St. and extending to Boylston Ave. and Arlington St. in Boston, one can find an abundance of natural processes that are either written into geological history, or presently ongoing. In this area, natural processes have allowed people to enjoy a carefully planned landscape and a breathtaking array of city nature, while also creating inconveniences to residents, ranging from damaged sidewalks to inaccessible alleyways and gusty winds. But before examining evidence of ongoing natural processes in the city, we must first understand the environmental history of the area. Boston was founded, and first settled in 1630 by Puritans from England ("Boston | Massachusetts, United States." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Accessed March 2, 2015) Since then, the settlement has grown into one of America’s largest cities. Originally, as seen in Figure 1, Boston was located on a small peninsula. Surrounded by water, the city was connected to the mainland only by a single small strip of land. The surrounding water made Boston a critical port for the early colonies, and established the city as a major shipping and manufacturing hub.

Figure 1: A map of Boston from 1769, used with permission from www.old-maps.com

What Boston looks like to us now is far from what it was at the start of its life. Much of the modern city of Boston was constructed on filled land. Figure 2 is a map of the city in 1806, before the land reclamation took place. Seen here is also the entire city, concentrated on the peninsula. The leftmost side of the peninsula is still recognizable today, as Boston Common. We will use the Common as a geographic reference point for the historical location of the Clarendon-Commonwealth to Boylston-Arlington site, hereafter referred to simply as the Site. The Site is today adjacent to the Public Gardens, invisible in figures 1 and 2, which borders the Common. The approximate location of the Site is marked on each of the figures for emphasis.

Turning our attention to Figure 3, we are presented with a completely different picture of Boston. Clearly from 1814 to 1880 the city as a whole underwent stunning geographic growth. This can, in part, be attributed to the land reclamation project, which created a larger connection to the mainland, along with new neighborhoods. The project also provided city planners with the opportunity to design the newly filled area. Looking at the Site in Figure 3 we can see that it is part of a structured grid system.This was deliberately chosen to provide order in the newly created urban area. It is also evident that the geographic structure of the Site has remained unchanged since the reclamation project. Figure 4, a map from the 20th century, shows how the urban landscape and street structure remained identical following the filling of land. Thus, the Site holds within it great historical significance, and insights into the minds of city designers of the 19th century.


An interesting observation can be made to the number of churches in the area. In just 4 square city blocks there are 2 churches, each founded at different times by different religious sects. A Presbyterian church is located on the corner of Newbery and Berkeley, and a Unitarian Universalist church is on the corner of Arlington and Boylston. A structure that dominates the area is the Taj Boston. The monolithic hotel not only takes up about a third of a city block, but also has influenced the surrounding businesses to cater to the wealth of the individuals who stay in the hotel. Surrounding the Taj are high-end designer fashion boutiques, namely Burberry, Tiffany, and Cartier among others. Another building, Restoration Hardware, takes up a significant portion of a block. It is isolated from any other structure, and serves both a commercial and tourism purpose in the area. The site also contains the Arlington T stop along the green line. The development of public transit in a city is a vital step in its growth. Evidence and remnants of this development can surely be found within this site. Cities only exist because of human traffic flow, which is both increased and altered by public transit.

Figure 3: A map of Boston in 1880, following the massive land reclamation project

Figure 4: A map of Boston in 1954. U.S> Geological Survey. Boston South, Massachusetts [map]. 1:25,000. Washington, D.C.: USGS, 1954

The original designers of the city included urban features into the area of the Site to improve overall city function. First, alleyways were constructed between streets to increase accessibility. They were also slanted downward to improve drainage and allow delivery access to a lower level. Second, designers placed a public garden directly adjacent to the Common. This essentially increased the size of the public park space in the city, which was perhaps done to mitigate the introduction of more urban environments. The public garden also contains a lake, a natural feature that provides the city with environmental benefits along with a social gathering area. Bodies of water cool the surrounding area, and provide a habitat for birds in the warmer months. The designers also located a long strip of tree cover along the center of Commonwealth Ave. This walkway serves several purposes, both environmental and social. People can use it as a scenic walk down the city, or a place to jog without the concern of vehicles. The Commonwealth mall also splits the roadway in 2, helping traffic flow Finally, the trees help to filter pollutants and improve air quality in the area, in addition to providing shade in the summer. This nature walk in the middle of the city gives the entire area a feeling of openness and tranquility, a nice contrast to the busyness and more urban Newbury St. and Boylston Ave. The Commonwealth Avenue Mall is not only a showcase for beautifully intricate sculptures of influential public figures in Boston’s history or a tranquil nature walk. It is a place of urban natural processes in action. The immediate area around the mall also shows evidence of natural progression. The trees along the walk provide the greatest insights. Trees are living organisms that shape, and are shaped by the environment around them. Their roots extend far underground to search for nutrients in the soil while their branches reach for the skies in the pursuit of sunlight. In a city, both of these critical resources are in short supply for most trees. Because of the lack of open, healthy soil, many city trees have stunted growth and thin branches. Looking at the average street tree, planted in a circular plot of land on the sidewalk barely larger than itself, surrounded by concrete, it is hard to imagine how anything could survive (Figure 5). Water has difficulty draining down to the ground beneath the pavement, and what does is often polluted. Not only is there little soil for the tree to extract nutrients from, but the ground surrounding it is constantly contaminated by street pollutants, whether from pedestrians, residents, or automobiles. (Spirn, Anne Whiston. The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design. New York, New York: Basic Books, 1984) Sunlight is another scarce resource in most dense city areas. Buildings block light, which often only filters through to the center of streets during the middle of the day. Even worse, some buildings are positioned in ways that make tree growth almost impossible. This forces trees to grow in abnormal patterns to try and reach what little bit of light they can.

Figure 5: A typical street tree located on Arlington Ave. In the background one can see its larger cousins living in the Common.

Reading the trees in the Site gives great insight into the solar patterns of the area, as well as the health of the soil. The Commonwealth Ave. Mall contains some of the largest trees in the city. The large strip of soil gives the trees ample space to grow and collect nutrients. The center of the street is also completely unobstructed by buildings, giving the trees plenty of sunlight. Most trees in the mall are tall and thick with wide, long branches that extend in all directions. But some anomalies in tree size do exist along the mall. Figure 6 shows the varying size between several trees in the same plot of soil. Since they all share a common ground, soil health is likely not a factor in their size difference. They also receive the same amount of light, so that is also likely not the reason. The most logical conclusion to draw would be that the trees were planted at different times. This not only shows that knowing the time when trees were planted is an important detail to understanding their size, but also that some trees in the area are younger than others, meaning the mall is constantly changing in composition. Directly across the street lives a tree inside of a small residential yard. Figure 7 shows the close proximity of the tree to a house. Notice how its branches are growing almost horizontally towards the middle of the street. This signifies that the tree is not getting enough sunlight next the house, likely because the house casts a shadow on it for a majority of the day, and the larger trees in the mall block much of the remaining light. Growth towards the middle of the street where more sunlight is available is typical of city trees that are planted in sub-optimal locations in the city. Figure 8 shows a street tree on Newbery St, a much narrower and more urbanized street. Notice how much smaller and thinner the tree is than those in mall. Granted this tree was likely planted later, it does not look as healthy as the others, and will certainly never reach the same height as those just one street over. This is certainly due to the paltry amount of soil that the tree has to grow in, as well as the higher levels of street pollution. Another factor that may be at play when it comes to the growth of trees is the amount of water they receive. Water carries nutrients for the trees to absorb, but it also shapes the urban landscape in other ways.

Figure 6: A photo of the Commonwealth Mall, showing the differences in sizes between trees in the area.

Figure 7: A tree on Commonwealth Ave. trying desperately to stretch towards sunlight.

Figure 8: A street tree along Newbury St.

Water is a powerful agent of natural change. Its ability to weather surfaces over time, to crack pavement and concrete, and to freeze is visible in the urban landscape of Boston. In the past, drainage systems were less advanced, and likely led to more water damage than today. Nowadays, sewage systems are very efficient at removing water from streets and the city as a whole. Some roofs are better designed to drain water and avoid icicle formation in the winter. Modern building and city planning techniques have lessened the visible impact of water flow in the city. Despite our best efforts, water as a natural process still disrupts city life. It cracks pavement, leading to potholes and forced repairs. (Elkins, James. How to Use Your Eyes. Routledge: New York, NY 2000) Figure 9 shows a large section of fatigue cracking along Boylston Ave. Also visible is a section of pavement that was used to fill in a section of deteriorated concrete or pothole. Such cracks in the sidewalk are usually attributed to overuse or poor drainage. (Elkins, James. How to Use Your Eyes. Routledge: New York, NY 2000) Drainage is not likely the cause in this case, considering the fact that a large grate is right next to the afflicted area. Overuse might be the cause, but it would still not explain the location of the hole; why is the entire sidewalk not littered with potholes? This distressed pavement (Elkins, James. How to Use Your Eyes. Routledge: New York, NY 2000) is likely due to a combination of overuse and the fact that two different materials are meeting on the boundary. The steel grate has different mechanical and thermal properties than the concrete, mainly; it expands or contracts differently with temperature. It is possible that repeated expansion and contraction of the more malleable concrete over the years has stressed the patch of sidewalk to the point of cracking. Although the pavement is a literal patch to remedy the situation, it does little to solve the underlying problem of inadequate spacing between the grate and the sidewalk. Perhaps a more elastic material could be added along the boundary to help mitigate the stress on the concrete.

Figure 9: A photo of an interesting crack formation in the pavement.

Water however, does much more than destroy pavement in the city. As the temperature cools, it turns to ice. Although ice poses its own hazards to city life, like slick roads and sidewalks, it sometimes creates spectacular displays of natural beauty. Figure 10 shows an alleyway between Commonwealth Ave. and Newbury St. following the second large blizzard of January 2015. The formation of icicles on the fire escapes of buildings is a phenomenon unique to the city: nowhere in nature would one find gaps small enough to support so many ice formations. They are likely formed due to melting snow heated by radiation from the adjacent apartments, which then refreezes as it trickles down the fire escape.

Figure 10: A breathtaking image of icicle formation in Boston alleyways.

If conditions are right, water can change to the solid state in the upper atmosphere as it precipitates, creating snow. Snow has the potential to significantly alter city life. Today, the movements of people in cities are studied at great length using data gathered from cell phones. Such data is very good at showing human traffic flow. Observing natural processes sometimes yields similar results without the use of technology. Figure 11 shows a section of Commonwealth Mall about a week after the last significant snowfall in the area. Interestingly enough, the melting pattern around the sculpture is different. This is likely due to the altered human traffic flow because of the snow. More people have walked around one side of the obstacle, and others followed suit to avoid the danger of slipping or ruining their shoes. Snow has the ability to change the dynamics of city life dramatically in subtle ways.

Figure 11: A photo of a manument in Commonwealth Mall. Notice how people have chosen to walk around the sculpture mostly on one side, as indicated by the snow melting pattern.

Figure 12: A completely snowed-in parking spot that has been rendered unusable by the weather

When combined with wind, snow patterns become even more intriguing. Snow banks formed by strong winds provide insight into airflow in certain areas. Although researchers know, and can predict with high accuracy, the movement of air around individual structures, understanding how it flows within the complicated landscape of a city is incredibly complex. (Spirn, Anne Whiston. The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design. New York, New York: Basic Books, 1984) Nevertheless, one can make observations of wind patterns by looking at snow formations in the city. Figure 12 shows a parking space that has been completely covered with blown-in snow. The recessed section carved into the building causes wind to spiral inside, leading to non-uniform deposition in the corners. Figure 13 is of the Emmanuel Church in the city of Boston. This photo shows the pattern of deposition seen when winds flow over the top of buildings and dump snow in low speed areas (Spirn, Anne Whiston. The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design. New York, New York: Basic Books, 1984). The snow bank is astonishingly large, and can only be explained by wind patterns. A final example of snow deposition due to high winds can be seen in Figure 14 of the Arlington St. Church. Wind has dumped enough snow to completely obscure the staircase leading to the door. It has also created a gradient in depth along the path of the winds. The nice sign asks us to pardon an ongoing construction project that has actually been covered by the snow. The path of wind has even further impeded access to this building. Looking at snow patterns is one of the best, and only ways of observing how wind moves within Boston. Wind patterns are altered in complex ways by the urban form, but are vital natural processes that shape life in the city.

Figure 13: A photo of the front side of the Emmanuel Church in Boston, showing how wind patterns dump snow in certain areas surrounding buildings.

Figure 14: The steps to this church have been completely covered by snow. Ironically, the weather has made this entrance all the more inaccessible.

All photographs are taken by the author unless otherwise noted

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