Marine Sensors Research
    Pitfalls to monitoring efforts
           ambiguous management objectives
           poor study design
           low statistical precision
           lack of commitment to implementation
           failure to communicate results
    How to avoid such pitfalls
          measurable objectives
          proper field techniques
          use of sampling design tools
          correct analysis approaches
          reporting/using results

The Antarctic Treaty
    Fourteen articles address
          only peaceful puposes, no military bases/weapons testing
          freedom of scientific research to all countries
          scientific cooperation, exchange of personnel, equipment, material
          maintain sovereignty at time of treaty's establishment
          inspection of all parties, stations, equipment to insure adherence to rules
          advanced notice of expeditions
          periodic meetings to advance pupose of treaty
          procedure to modify treaty
          any member of UN can join
    Agreed measures for conservation of flora/fauna
          protect plants/animals
          licenses required to take/harm any wildlife
          set specially protected areas and areas of special scientific interest
    Seal Convention
           regulate commercial sealing, make plan for sustainable population
           enforcement left to individual nations
    Ammendment Process
           requries ratification by all contracting parties
    Protocol on environmental protection to Antarctic Treaty
           designates as natural reserve, devoted to peace and science
           creates Committe for Environmental Protection
           subjects all activities to environmental impact assessment
           develops contingency plans for response to environmental emergencies
           rules for disposal of waste on land and sea
           management of protected areas
                Antarctic Specially Protected areas (permit for entry)
                Antarctic Specially Managed areas (stricter regulations)
    NGO's involved
           International Union for the Conservation of Nature
           United Nations Environment Program

Field Techniques for Measuring Vegetation
    Techniques aimed at shrubs/herbs somewhat toward trees
    Also work for sessile animals
    Things to measure
        density – individuals/unit area
        frequency – proportion of sampling units containing species
        cover – ground surface covered by plant (%)
        biomass – plant material produced over unit time
        plant vigor – on individuals (i.e. height, number of flowers)
    Complete population counts
        only for small area
        use grid pattern
        permanently mark boundaries for accurate future counts
    Sampling vegetation
        sampling unit generally quadrat
        two stage: 1. quadrat 2. individuals within quadrat
        consistent boundary protocol for plants on edge of quadrat
            “in” along two sides, “out” along other two gives most accurate figure
        primary sampling unit must be independent (island in our case?)
        if not independent, underestimation of standard error, questionable results
    Density estimates
        only effective for species with recognizable counting unit
        bad for long-lived plants that respond to stress with reduced cover/biomass
        mortality will not occur/results won't show trend
        quadrats should be elongated rectangles, counted from one side
        more precise if large or square but much less efficient
        control of boundary protocol essential
        usually rooted boundary better than canopy except for matted plants
        count by stages (seedling, reproductive, non-reproductive)
            more information for future projections
    Frequency
        % of total plots containing species
        especially useful in determining spacial arrangement – invasive species
        misses density changes so some biological changes missed
        optimal numbers between 30-70% - both increase and decrease noticeable
        plot size determines % range
        large plots approach 100% occurrence
    Cover
        most common measure of community composition
        dramatic change within growing season
        either basal (ground level) or canopy (bird's eye view)
        popular due to ease and speed of data collection
        reduce variability with frames
            ex. 50x50 frame divided into 10x10 segments
            group partially filled squares
        randomly chosen transect lines, several quadrats along each recommended
        average the values of cover for above
        line intercepts – distance that contains canopy/total distance
            can be effected by wind
        point intercept reduces to question of “hit” or “no hit”
        transect is less time consuming than plot
        plot more precise than point
        point less time consuming than lines, lines better for rare plants
    Production and vigor indicators
        height, base, number of flowers/leaves/stems
        often involve harvesting and taking mass – most likely bad for Galapagos
    Choosing proper technique
        rhizomes – frequency
        matted plants – cover
        long-lived plants – vigor shows stress because they are hard to kill
        dense shrubs – aerial cover or line intercept

Specialized Sampling Methods and Field Techniques for Animals
    Capture-recapture 
        for success need high number captured (>50)
        still not very accurate
        marker cannot affect behavior/social status
        cannot affect chance of recapture (learning to avoid traps)
        marks must be distinguishable for second capture
        pop. Size = (#first catch+1)(#second catch+1)/(#marked second catch)
    Mark-resight
        good whenever above circumstances aren't met
        often involve radio collars for knowledge of # marked that are alive
    Removal method
        large effect on ecosystem, so not good for Galapagos
    Distance sightings
        assume all individuals along transect are visible
        assume individuals aren't far from point of origin
        works like density for plants
    Indices
        track densities, calls, other signs of activity
        only effective when linear relationship is recognizable
        if possible, account for other factors (observers, weather, etc.) over years
        begin with controlled experiment to establish linear relationship
    For butterflies
        sightings along “routes” on specific type of day
        won't give accurate population, but gives relative numbers year to year
    For beetles
        pit traps (cup dug into ground, need not be lethal if checked often)
        use chemicals to deter predators from eating from traps
    For aquatic invertebrates
        catch screen, disturb bottom surface (streams)
        portable invertebrate box samplers
        artificial substrates introduced, periodically checked for colonization
        core/dredging samples from boat
    For fish
        manual counting with SCUBA gear
        capture with fishing rod for large fish
        minnow traps for small fish
        nets often used but if left alone must be checked often to reduce mortality
        electroshocking with DC to reduce harm to fish
        all these methods used in mark-recapture technique
        difficult because fish tend to be in clusters and move a lot
            high sampling variationextensive rather than intensive studies
            stratify samples
        pilot studies key to defining scope to be cost effective and insure useful info
    For amphibians and reptiles
        sightings along transect line, move objects that block view
        compare lines for relative abundance
        litter quadrats
            randomly or systematically distributed
            search through leaf litter, record sightings
        introduction of artificial cover objects (wood or sheet metal)
        auditory records for frogs <> floating pit traps for turtles (checked often)
    For birds
        point counts (count individuals seen/heard from point in set radius)<>
        done during primary mating season
        flock counts, use of calls/record reactions <>For mammals
        line transect sightings of indices and individuals (large mammals)<>
        trap sites for rodents/other small mammals
        indices often most valuable for mammals