





Table of Contents
Common Writing Problems for Non-Native Speakers of
English
1. Planning and Producing Documents
- 1.1Characteristics of Effective Technical Communication
- 1.1.1 Accuracy
- 1.1.2 Clarity
- 1.1.3 Conciseness
- 1.1.4 Coherence
- 1.1.5 Appropriateness
- 1.2 Document Purpose
- 1.2.1 Explicit Purposes
- 1.2.2 Implicit Purposes
- 1.2.3 Statement of Objective
- 1.5 Organization
- 1.5.1 Developing a Detailed Outline
- 1.5.1.1 Informal Outline
- 1.5.1.2 Formal Outline
- 1.5.2 Subject Headings
- 1.6 Forecasting
- 1.7 Drafting a Technical Document
- 1.8 Revising Organization
- 1.9 Revising Content
- 1.10 Editing for Grammar and Style
- 1.11 Reviewing a Document
- 1.11.1 Peer Review
- 1.11.1.1 Requesting a Peer Review
- 1.11.1.2 Performing a Peer Review
- 1.11.2 Technical Review
- 1.11.3 Editorial Review
- 1.11.4 Managerial Review
- 1.12 Collaborative Writing
- 1.13 Legal and Ethical Issues
- 1.14 Document Design
- 1.14.1 Format
- 1.14.2 Layout
- 1.14.2.1 Example of Page Layout
- 1.15 Document Checklist
2. Document Types
- 2.1 Memoranda
- 2.2 Meeting Documents
- 2.2.1 Agenda
- 2.2.2 Minutes
- 2.3 Literature Reviews
- 2.4 Reports
- 2.4.1 Laboratory Reports
- 2.4.2 Research Reports
- 2.4.3 Research Articles
- 2.4.4 Design and Feasibility Reports
- 2.4.5 Progress Reports
- 2.4.6 Consulting Reports
- 2.4.7 Trip Reports
- 2.5 Letters
- 2.5.1 Job Application Letters
- 2.5.2 Acceptance Letters
- 2.5.3 Transmittal Letters
- 2.5.4 Letters of Inquiry
- 2.5.5 Technical-Information Letters and Memoranda
- 2.5.6 References and Letters of Recommendation
- 2.5.6.1 Obtaining Letters of Recommendation
- 2.5.6.2 Writing Letters of Recommendation
- 2.6 Proposals
- 2.7 Press Releases
- 2.8 Task-Oriented Documents
- 2.8.1 Specifications
- 2.8.2 Documentation (Manuals)
- 2.8.2.1 Technical Documentation
- 2.8.2.2. User Documentation
- 2.8.3 Instructions and Procedures
- 2.8.4 Style Guides
- 2.9 Theses
- 2.9.1 The Thesis-Writing Process
- 2.9.2 Thesis Proposal
- 2.9.3 Format of the Thesis
- 2.9.4 Thesis Defense
- 2.10 Oral Presentations
- 2.10.1 Informal and Formal Oral Reports
- 2.10.2 Format of Oral Presentations
- 2.10.3 Overheads and Other Display Media
- 2.10.4 Delivery
- 2.10.5 Example of Materials for an Oral Presentation: A Design Review
- 2.11 Meetings
- 2.12 Electronic Documents
- 2.12.1 Electronic Mail
- 2.12.2 Web Sites
- 2.12.3 Hypertext
- 2.13 Résumés
- 2.13.1 Action Verbs for Résumés and Job Application Letters
- 2.14 Notes and Notebooks
3. Elements of Technical Documents
- 3.1 Sections and Subsections
- 3.2 Headings and Subheadings
- 3.3 Front Matter
- 3.3.1 Title and Title Page
- 3.3.2 Abstract
- 3.3.3 Table of Contents
- 3.3.4 List of Figures
- 3.3.5 List of Tables
- 3.3.6 List of Terms
- 3.3.7 Acknowledgments
- 3.4 Body
- 3.4.1 Introduction
- 3.4.1.1 Problem Statement
- 3.4.1.2 Purpose
- 3.4.1.3 Scope
- 3.4.1.4 Authorization
- 3.4.1.5 Sample Title and Introduction: Astronautical Engineering Design
Report
- 3.4.1.6 Sample Title and Introduction: Mechanical Design Report
- 3.4.1.7 Sample Title and Introduction: Biology Report
- 3.4.1.8 Sample Title and Introduction: Information Systems Report
- 3.4.2 Background
- 3.4.3 Theory
- 3.4.4 Design and Decision Criteria
- 3.4.5 Materials and Apparatus
- 3.4.6 Procedure
- 3.4.7 Work Plan
- 3.4.8 Results
- 3.4.9 Discussion
- 3.4.10 Conclusion
- 3.4.10.1 Sample Short Conclusion: Biology
- 3.4.10.2 Sample Long Conclusion: Aero-Astro Engineering
- 3.4.11 Recommendations
- 3.5 End Matter
- 3.5.1 References
- 3.5.2 Appendixes
- 3.5.3 Indexes
4. Graphs and Figures
- 4.1 Reasons for Using Graphics
- 4.2 Common Graphics
- 4.2.1 Working Drawings
- 4.2.2 Tables
- 4.2.3 Bar Graphs
- 4.2.4 Line Graphs
- 4.2.5 Pie Graphs
- 4.2.6 Illustrations
- 4.2.7 Diagrams
- 4.2.8 Photographs
- 4.2.9 Exploded Views
- 4.2.10 Schematic Diagrams
- 4.2.11 Flowcharts
- 4.2.12 Timetables (Gantt Charts)
- 4.3 General Guidelines for Graphics
- 4.3.1 Accurate Labeling
- 4.3.2 Numbering Graphics
- 4.3.3 Integrating Graphics and Text
5. Paragraphs
- 5.1 Paragraph Unity
- 5.2 Paragraph Coherence
- 5.2.1 Transitional Devices
- 5.2.1.1 Transitional Words and Phrases
- 5.2.1.2 Common Transitional Words and Phrases
- 5.2.2 Linking Pronouns
- 5.2.3 Repetition of Key Words
- 5.3 Paragraph Development
- 5.3.1 Exemplification
- 5.3.2 Narration
- 5.3.3 Process
- 5.3.4 Description
- 5.3.5 Comparison and Contrast
- 5.3.6 Analogy
- 5.3.7 Cause and Effect
- 5.3.8 Classification and Division
- 5.3.9 Definition
- 5.3.10 Analysis
- 5.3.11 Enumeration
6. Sentences
- 6.1 Stacked Modifiers and Nouns
- 6.2 Wordiness
- 6.2.1 Passive Voice and Active Voice
- 6.2.2 Nominalizations
- 6.2.3 Unnecessary Repetition
- 6.2.4 Unnecessary Words and Phrases
- 6.3 Overloaded Sentences
- 6.4 Sentence Fragments
- 6.5 Comma Splice
- 6.6 Fused Sentences
- 6.7 Stringy Sentences
- 6.8 Agreement
- 6.8.1 Subject-Verb Agreement
- 6.8.1.1 Two or More Nouns
- 6.8.1.2 Sentences Beginning with There
- 6.8.1.3 Indefinite Pronouns
- 6.8.1.4 Collective Nouns
- 6.8.1.5 Quantifiers
- 6.8.2 Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
- 6.9 Lack of Parallelism
- 6.10 Choppy Sentences
- 6.11 Misplaced Modifiers
- 6.11.1 Interrupted Sentence Structure
- 6.11.2 Modifiers of Nouns
- 6.11.3 Adverb Modifiers
- 6.12 Dangling Modifiers
- 6.13 Double Negatives
- 6.14 Faulty Comparisons
- 6.14.1 Nonparallel Comparisons
- 6.14.2 Incomplete Comparisons
- 6.14.3 Ambiguous Comparisons
- 6.15 Inappropriate Shifts
- 6.15.1 Tense
- 6.15.2 Mood
- 6.15.3 Person
- 6.15.4 Voice
- 6.16 Sequence of tenses
- 6.17 Pronoun Reference
- 6.17.1 Unclear Pronoun Reference
- 6.17.2 Broad Pronoun Reference
- 6.18 Pronoun Case
7. Words
- 7.1 Abstract and General Language
- 7.2 Vague Language
- 7.3 Ornate Language
- 7.4 Technical Terms
- 7.5 Biased Language
- 7.5.1 Sexist Language
- 7.5.2 Ageist Language
- 7.5.3 Language Biased against People with Disabilities
- 7.5.4 Ethnically and Racially Biased Language
8. Punctuation
- 8.1 Periods
- 8.2 Commas
- 8.2.1 Introductory Elements
- 8.2.2 Coordinating Conjunctions Joining Independent Clauses
- 8.2.3 Elements in a Series
- 8.2.4 Coordinate Modifiers
- 8.2.5 Nonrestrictive Modifiers
- 8.2.6 Parenthetic Elements
- 8.2.7 Elliptical Constructions
- 8.2.8 Specialized Uses of Commas
- 8.2.9 Superfluous Commas
- 8.2.10 Placement of Commas with Other Punctuation
- 8.3 Colons
- 8.4 Semicolons
- 8.5 Question Marks
- 8.6 Exclamation Marks
- 8.7 Apostrophes
- 8.8 Quotation marks
- 8.9 Hyphens
- 8.10 Dashes
- 8.11 Parentheses
- 8.12 Brackets
9. Mechanics
- 9.1 Capitalization
- 9.2 Italics
- 9.3 Abbreviations
- 9.4 Acronyms
- 9.5 Numbers
- 9.6 Enumeration
- 9.7 Symbols
- 9.8 Equations
- 9.9 Spelling
10. Citing Sources and Listing References
- 10.1 Using the Language of Your Source Appropriately
- 10.2 Acknowledging Sources
- 10.3 Basic Structure and Formats of Citation Styles
- 10.3.1 Citing Online Sources
- 10.3.2 Specific Citation Styles
- 10.4 American Psychological Association (APA) Author-Date Style
- 10.4.1 General Structure
- 10.4.2 Guidelines for APA Parenthetical Citation
- 10.4.2.1 Name of Author Included in Text
- 10.4.2.2 Placement of Parenthetical Citations
- 10.4.2.3 Page Numbers
- 10.4.2.4 Quotations
- 10.4.2.5 One Work by Two Authors
- 10.4.2.6 One Work by Three, Four, or Five Authors
- 10.4.2.7 One Work by Six or More Authors
- 10.4.2.8 More Than One Work by the Same Author
- 10.4.2.9 More Than One Work by Different Authors in the Same Parenthetical
Citation
- 10.4.2.10 Two Works by the Same Author in the Same Year
- 10.4.2.11 Two Works by Different Authors with the Same Last Name
- 10.4.2.12 Organizational Author
- 10.4.2.13 Unknown Author
- 10.4.2.14 Personal Communication and Other "Nonrecoverable"
Information
- 10.4.3 Use of Endnotes
- 10.4.4 APA Reference List
- 10.4.4.1 Content Guidelines
- 10.4.4.2 Page Format
- 10.4.4.3 General Structure of Entry
- 10.4.4.4 Books
- 10.4.4.5 Journal Articles
- 10.4.4.6 Electronic Sources
- 10.5 Modern Language Assocation (MLA) Author-Page Style
- 10.5.1 General Structure
- 10.5.2 Guidelines for MLA Parenthetical Citation
- 10.5.2.1 Placement of Parenthetical Citations
- 10.5.2.2 Name of Author Included in Text
- 10.5.2.3 Page Numbers
- 10.5.2.4 Quotations
- 10.5.2.5 One Work by Two or Three Authors
- 10.5.2.6 One Work by Four or More Authors
- 10.5.2.7 More Than One Work by the Same Author
- 10.5.2.8 More Than One Work by Different Authors in the Same Citation
- 10.5.2.9 Two Works by Different Authors with the Same Last Name
- 10.5.2.10 Organizational Author
- 10.5.2.11 Unknown Author
- 10.5.2.12 Personal Communication and Other "Nonrecoverable"
Information
- 10.5.3 Use of Endnotes or Footnotes
- 10.5.3.1 Endnotes
- 10.5.3.2 Footnotes
- 10.5.4 MLA List of Works Cited
- 10.5.4.1 Content Guidelines
- 10.5.4.2 Page Format
- 10.5.4.3 General Structure of Entry
- 10.5.4.4 Books
- 10.5.4.5 Journal Articles
- 10.5.4.6 Electronic Sources
- 10.6 Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) Note Citations
- 10.6.1 General Structure
- 10.6.2 Guidelines for CMS Note Citation
- 10.6.2.1 Placement of Superscript Notes
- 10.6.2.2 Page Numbers
- 10.6.2.3 Quotations
- 10.6.2.4 Citing More Than One Work by the Same Author
- 10.6.2.5 More Than One Work by Different Authors in the Same Note
- 10.6.2.6 Two Works by Different Authors with the Same Last Name
- 10.6.2.7 Personal Communication and Other "Nonrecoverable"
Information
- 10.6.3 Use of Endnotes or Footnotes
- 10.6.4 CMS Note List
- 10.6.4.1 Content Guidelines
- 10.6.4.2 Page Format
- 10.6.4.3 General Structure of Entry
- 10.6.4.4 Books
- 10.6.4.5 Journal Articles
- 10.7 Council of Biology Editors (CBE) Citation-Sequence System
- 10.7.1 General Structure
- 10.7.2 Guidelines for CBE Citation-Sequence System
- 10.7.2.1 Name of Author Included in Text
- 10.7.2.2 Placement of Superscript Note Numbers
- 10.7.2.3 More Than One Work in the Same Citation
- 10.7.2.4 Personal Communication and Other "Nonrecoverable"
Information
- 10.7.3 Use of Endnotes or Footnotes
- 10.7.4 CBE Numbered List of References
- 10.7.4.1 Content Guidelines
- 10.7.4.2 Page Format
- 10.7.4.3 General Structure of Entry
- 10.7.4.4 Books
- 10.7.4.5 Journal Articles
- 10.7.4.6 Electronic Sources
- 10.8 IEEE Citation-Sequence System
- 10.8.1 General Structure
- 10.8.2 Guidelines for IEEE Citation-Sequence System
- 10.8.2.1 Placement of Note Numbers
- 10.8.2.2 Name of Author Included in Text
- 10.8.2.3 More Than One Work in the Same Citation
- 10.8.2.4 Personal Communication and Other "Nonrecoverable"
Information
- 10.8.3 Use of Endnotes or Footnotes
- 10.8.4 IEEE Numbered List of References
- 10.8.4.1 Content Guidelines
- 10.8.4.2 Page Format
- 10.8.4.3 Books
- 10.8.4.4 Journal Articles
- 10.8.4.5 Electronic Sources
11. Parts of Speech
- 11.1 Nouns
- 11.1.1 Countable and Uncountable Nouns
- 11.1.1.1 Countable Nouns
- 11.1.1.2 Uncountable (Mass) Nouns
- 11.1.2 Other Grammatical Characteristics of Nouns
- 11.1.2.1 Gender
- 11.1.2.2 Number
- 11.1.2.3 Person
- 11.1.3 Proper Nouns
- 11.1.4 Possession
- 11.2 Pronouns
- 11.2.1 Pronoun Antecedent
- 11.2.2 Personal Pronouns
- 11.2.3 Relative Pronouns
- 11.2.4 Demonstrative Pronouns
- 11.2.5 Interrogative Pronouns
- 11.2.6 Indefinite Pronouns
- 11.2.7 Reciprocal Pronouns
- 11.2.8 Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns
- 11.3 Verbs
- 11.3.1 Verb Tense
- 11.3.1.1 Simple Present Tense
- 11.3.1.2 Simple Past Tense
- 11.3.1.3 Future Tense
- 11.3.1.4 Present Perfect Tense
- 11.3.1.5 Past Perfect Tense
- 11.3.1.6 Future Perfect Tense
- 11.3.1.7 Progressive Form
- 11.3.2 Voice
- 11.3.3 Mood
- 11.3.3.1 Indicative Mood
- 11.3.3.2 Imperative Mood
- 11.3.3.3 Subjunctive Mood
- 11.3.4 Auxiliary Verbs
- 11.3.5 Modal Auxiliaries
- 11.3.6 Nonfinite Verbs
- 11.3.6.1 Infinitives
- 11.3.6.2 Gerunds
- 11.3.7 Verb Forms
- 11.3.7.1 Base Form
- 11.3.7.2 Present Participle
- 11.3.7.3 Past Participle
- 11.3.7.4 Irregular Verbs
- 11.3.8 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
- 11.4 Adjectives
- 11.4.1 Determiners
- 11.4.1.1 Demonstrative Adjectives
- 11.4.1.2 Possessive Adjectives
- 11.4.1.3 Quantifiers
- 11.4.2 Participial Adjectives
- 11.4.2.1 Active Participial Adjectives
- 11.4.2.2 Passive Participial Adjectives
- 11.4.3 Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
- 11.4.3.1 Comparative
- 11.4.3.2 Superlative
- 11.5 Adverbs
- 11.5.1 Attitude Adverbs
- 11.5.2 Sentence Adverbs
- 11.5.3 Time Adverbs
- 11.5.4 Manner Adverbs
- 11.5.5 Quantity Adverbs
- 11.5.6 Comparative and Superlative Adverbs
- 11.5.6.1 Comparative
- 11.5.6.2 Superlative
- 11.6 Prepositions
- 11.7 Conjunctions
- 11.7.1 Coordinating Conjunctions
- 11.7.2 Correlative Conjunctions
- 11.7.3 Subordinating Conjunctions
- 11.7.4 Conjunctive Adverbs
- 11.8 Articles
- 11.8.1 Definite Articles
- 11.8.2 Indefinite Articles
- 11.8.2.1 Choosing between a and an
- 11.8.3 Usage Rules for Articles
- 11.8.3.1 Is an Article Necessary?
- 11.8.3.2 Which Article is Appropriate?
- 11.8.3.3 Articles and Demonstrative and Possessive Adjectives
- 11.8.3.4 Articles and Proper Nouns
12. Parts of Sentences
- 12.1 Subjects
- 12.2 Predicates
- 12.3 Objects
- 12.3.1 Direct Objects
- 12.3.2 Indirect Objects
- 12.3.3 Objects of Prepositions
- 12.4 Modifiers
- 12.4.1 Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Modifiers
- 12.5 Phrases
- 12.5.1 Appositive Phrases
- 12.5.2 Participial Phrases
- 12.6 Clauses
- 12.6.1 Independent Clauses
- 12.6.2 Dependent Clauses
- 12.6.2.1 Noun Clauses
- 12.6.2.2 Adjective Clauses
- 12.6.2.3 Adverbial Clauses
13. Sentence Types and Word Order
- 13.1 Sentence Types Classified by Structure
- 13.1.1 Simple Sentences
- 13.1.2 Compound Sentences
- 13.1.3 Complex Sentences
- 13.2 Sentence Types Classified by Purpose
- 13.2.1 Declarative Sentences
- 13.2.2 Interrogative Sentences
- 13.2.3 Imperative Sentences
- 13.3 Word Order
- 13.3.1 Ordinary Word Order
- 13.3.2 Inverted Word Order
- 13.4 Placement of Phrases and Clauses
- 13.4.1 Old Information before New
- 13.4.2 Important Information in Main Clause
14. Usage Glossary
15. Writer's Resources
- 15.1 Style Guides
- 15.1.1 General
- 15.1.2 Technical
- 15.1.2.1 Astronomy and Physics
- 15.1.2.2 Biology and Medicine
- 15.1.2.3 Chemistry
- 15.1.2.4 Electrical Engineering
- 15.1.2.5 Geology and Meteorology
- 15.1.2.6 Mathematics
- 15.1.3 Electronic Sources
- 15.2 Dictionaries
- 15.2.1 Desk Dictionaries
- 15.2.2 Unabridged Dictionaries
- 15.2.3 ESL Dictionaries
- 15.2.4 Technical Dictionaries
- 15.3 Grammar and Usage
- 15.4 General Guides to Effective Style
- 15.5 Guides to Scientific Writing
- 15.6 Guides for Effective Graphs and Text Formats
- 15.7 Information on Specific Topics
- 15.7.1 Nomenclature, Abbreviations, and Symbols
- 15.7.2 Tables and Units of Measurement
- 15.7.3 Maps and Place Names
- 15.8 Useful Tables
[ Home | Table of Contents | Writing Timeline | Index | Help
| Credits ]