List of Figures


Thermodynamics and Propulsion

List of Figures

1.1. The propulsion chain
1.2. Examples of heat engines
1.3. Piston (boundary) and gas (system)
1.4. Boundary around electric motor (system)
1.5. Sample control volume
1.6. Equilibrium
. - diagram
. - diagram
. - diagram
1.7. Thermodynamics coordinates and isolines for an ideal gas
1.8. The zeroth law schematically
1.9. A closed system (dashed box) against a piston, which moves into the surroundings
1.10. Work during an irreversible process
1.11. Work in - coordinates
1.12. Simple processes
1.13. Quasi-static, isothermal expansion of an ideal gas
1.14. A resistor heating water
1.15. Pressure-temperature-volume surface for a substance that expands on freezing
2.1. Random motion is the physical basis for internal energy
2.2. The change in energy of a system relates the heat added to the work done
2.3. The change in energy between two states is not path dependent.
2.4. Energy is a function of state only
2.5. Adiabatic flow through a valve, a generic throttling process
2.6. Equivalence of actual system and piston model
2.7. A transient problem —- filling of a tank from the atmosphere
2.8. Control volume and system for flow through a propulsion device
2.9. A control volume used to track mass flows
2.10. Schematic diagrams illustrating terms in the energy equation for a simple and a more general control volume
2.11. Streamlines and a stagnation region
2.12. A stationary gas turbine drawing air in from the atmosphere
2.13. A control volume approach to the tank filling problem
2.14. Flow through a rocket nozzle
2.15. The Pratt and Whitney 4084
3.1. Examples of the conversion of work into heat
3.2. Isothermal expansion
3.3. A generalized heat engine
3.4. Carnot cycle
3.5. Work and heat transfers in a Carnot cycle between two heat reservoirs
3.6. Operation of a Carnot refrigerator
3.7. Schematic of a domestic refrigerator
3.8. The ideal Otto cycle
3.9. Sketch of an actual Otto cycle
3.10. Piston and valves in a four-stroke internal combustion engine
3.11. Ideal Otto cycle thermal efficiency
3.12. The ideal Diesel cycle
3.13. Sketch of the jet engine components and corresponding thermodynamic states
3.14. Schematics of typical military gas turbine engines
3.15. Thermodynamic model of gas turbine engine cycle for power generation
3.16. Options for operating Brayton cycle gas turbine engines
3.17. Gas turbine engine pressures and temperatures
3.18. Gas turbine engine pressure ratio trends
3.19. Trend of Brayton cycle thermal efficiency with compressor pressure ratio
3.20. Rolls-Royce high temperature technology
3.21. Turbine blade cooling technology technology
3.22. Efficiency and work of two Brayton cycle engines
3.23. Trend of cycle work with compressor pressure ratio
3.24. Aeroengine core power
3.25. The ideal ramjet
3.26. Brayton cycle considered as a number of elementary Carnot cycles
4.1. Flywheel in insulated enclosure at initial and final states
4.2. Bricks separated by a temperature difference
4.3. Free expansion
4.4. Expansion against a piston
4.5. Returning the free expansion to its initial condition
4.6. Work and heat exchange in the reversible isothermal compression process
4.7. 100% conversion of work into heat
4.8. Work and heat transfer in reversible isothermal expansion
4.9. A piston with weights on top
4.10. Getting the most work out of a system
4.11. Heat transfer across a finite temperature difference
4.12. Nicolas Sadi Carnot
5.1. The Kelvin-Planck statement of the Second Law
5.2. The Clausius statement of the Second Law
5.3. Heat transfer from/to a heat reservoir
5.4. Heat transfer between two reservoirs
5.5. Work from a single heat reservoir
5.6. The ``Hot Brick'' Problem
6.1. A Carnot cycle heat engine
6.2. Arrangement of heat engines to demonstrate the thermodynamic temperature scale
6.3. Carnot cycle in - coordinates
6.4. Ideal Brayton cycle as composed of many elementary Carnot cycles
6.5. Arbitrary cycle operating between $T_\textrm {min}$ , $T_\textrm {max}$
6.6. Brayton cycle in enthalpy-entropy ( - ) representation showing compressor and turbine work
6.7. Irreversible and reversible state changes
6.8. Adiabatic Throttling
6.9. Static and stagnation pressures and temperatures
6.10. Stagnation and static states
6.11. Losses reflected in changes in stagnation pressure when $T_t = \textrm {const.}$
6.12. Schematic of turbine and representation in - coordinates
6.13. Isothermal expansion with friction
6.15. Airfoil with control volume for analysis of propulsive power requirement
7.1. Some allowed states of the system in the numerical example
7.2. Constant energy state groups
7.3. Transition probabilities in numerical experiment with isolated system
7.4. Evolution of the probability distribution with time
7.5. Entropy for the system as a function of time
8.1. Two-phase system in contact with constant temperature heat reservoir
8.2. - relation for a liquid-vapor system
8.3. - diagram for two-phase system showing isotherms
8.4. Constant pressure curves in - coordinates showing vapor dome
8.5. Specific volumes at constant temperature and states within the vapor dome in a liquid-vapor system
8.6. Liquid vapor equilibrium in a two-phase medium
8.7. Carnot cycle with two-phase medium
8.8. Carnot cycle devised to test the validity of the laws of thermodynamics
8.9. Clausius-Clapeyron Experimental Proof (1)
8.10. Clausius-Clapeyron Experimental Proof (2)
8.11. Rankine power cycle with two-phase working fluid
8.12. Rankine cycle diagram
8.13. Rankine cycle with superheating
8.14. Comparison of Rankine cycle with superheating and Carnot cycle
8.15. Rankine cycle with superheating and reheat for space power application
8.16. Effect of exit pressure on Rankine cycle efficiency
8.17. Effect of maximum boiler pressure on Rankine cycle efficiency
8.18. Gas turbine-steam combined cycle
8.19. Schematic of combined cycle using gas turbine and steam turbine
8.20. Comparison of efficiency and power output of various power products
8.21. The vapor dome in - (experimental data)
8.22. Clausius-Clapeyron Experimental Proof (3)
9.1. Typical liquid propellant rocket motor
9.2. Schematics of typical military gas turbine engines
9.3. Schematics of a PW PT6A-65, a typical turboprop
9.4. The RB211-535E4, a typical high bypass-ratio turbofan
10.1. Two inertial coordinate systems, one stationary, one translating
10.2. Falling blocks
10.3. Control volume for application of momentum theorem to a rocket.
10.4. Control volume for application of momentum theorem to an aircraft engine
10.5. Alternate control volume for application of momentum theorem to an aircraft engine
11.1. Schematic of the inlet area of an engine
11.2. Propulsive efficiency and specific thrust as a function of exhaust velocity
11.3. The F-22 Raptor
11.4. The Boeing 777-200
11.5. A propeller gives a relatively small impulse ( $\Delta u$ ) to a relatively large mass flow
11.6. An advanced, contour-rotating, unducted fan concept
11.7. Propulsive efficiency comparison for various gas turbine engine configurations
11.8. Trends in aircraft engine efficiency
11.9. Pressure ratio trends for commercial transport engines
11.10. Trends in turbine inlet temperature
11.11. Trends in engine bypass ratio
11.12. Gas turbine engine station numbering.
11.13. Control volume over the burner
11.14. Thrust per unit mass flow and specific impulse for ideal ramjet
11.15. Schematic with appropriate component notations added.
11.16. Performance of an ideal turbojet engine vs. flight Mach number
11.17. Performance of an ideal turbojet engine vs. compressor pressure ratio, flight Mach number
11.18. Performance of an ideal turbojet engine vs. compressor pressure ratio, turbine inlet temperature
11.19. Gas turbine engine (Brayton) cycle showing effect of departure from ideal behavior in compressor and turbine
11.20. Non-dimensional power and efficiency for a non-ideal gas turbine engine
11.21. Scale diagram of non-ideal gas turbine cycle
11.22. Cessna Skyhawk single engine propeller plane
11.23. The V-22 Osprey utilizes tiltrotor technology
11.24. Schematic of propeller
11.25. Control volume for analysis of a propeller
11.26. Schematic of actuator disk model
11.27. Control volume around actuator disk.
11.28. Typical propeller efficiency curves vs. advance ratio and blade angle
11.29. Typical propeller thrust curves vs. advance ratio and blade angle
11.30. Typical propeller power curves vs. advance ratio and blade angle
12.1. Control volume around compressor or turbine.
12.2. Control volume for Euler Turbine Equation.
12.3. A typical multistage axial flow compressor
12.4. Schematic representation of an axial flow compressor.
12.5. Pressure and velocity profiles through a multi-stage axial compressor
12.6. Velocity triangles for an axial compressor stage
12.7. Compressor behavior
12.8. Schematic of an axial flow turbine.
12.9. Velocity triangles for an axial flow turbine stage.
13.1. A schematic of the forces on an aircraft in steady level flight
13.2. Components of vehicle drag.
13.3. Typical power required curve for an aircraft.
13.4. The propulsion energy conversion chain from Part I
13.5. Relationship between condition for maximum endurance and maximum range.
13.6. Force balance for an aircraft in climbing flight.
13.7. Typical behavior of power available as a function of flight velocity.
13.8. Lockheed Martin F-16 performing a vertical accelerated climb.
14.1. Schematic of rocket nozzle and combustion chamber
14.2. Schematic for application of the momentum theorem.
14.3. The Saturn V rocket
14.4. General form of relationship between flow area and Mach number.
15.1. Constant pressure combustion
15.2. Specific heat as a function of temperature
15.3. Schematic of adiabatic flame temperature
16.1. Conduction heat transfer
16.2. Heat transfer along a bar
16.3. One-dimensional heat conduction
16.4. Temperature boundary conditions for a slab
16.5. Temperature distribution through a slab
16.6. Heat transfer across a composite slab (series thermal resistance)
16.7. Heat transfer for a wall with dissimilar materials (parallel thermal resistance)
16.8. Heat transfer through an insulated wall
16.9. Temperature distribution through an insulated wall
16.10. Cylindrical shell geometry notation
16.11. Spherical shell
16.12. Interface Control Volume
17.1. Turbine blade heat transfer configuration
17.2. Temperature and velocity distributions near a surface
17.3. Velocity profile near a surface
17.4. Momentum and energy exchanges in turbulent flow
17.5. Heat exchanger configurations
17.6. Conducting wall with convective heat transfer
17.7. Cylinder in a flowing fluid
17.8. Critical radius of insulation
17.9. Effect of the Biot Number on temperature distributions
17.10. Temperature distribution in a convectively cooled cylinder for different values of Biot number
18.1. Slab with heat sources
18.2. Temperature distribution for slab with distributed heat sources
18.3. Geometry of heat transfer fin
18.4. Element of fin showing heat transfer
18.5. The temperature distribution in a fin
18.6. Temperature variation in an object cooled by a flowing fluid
18.7. Voltage change in an R-C circuit
18.8. Concentric tubes heat exchangers
18.9. Cross-flow heat exchangers.
18.10. Geometry for heat transfer between two fluids
18.11. Counterflow heat exchanger
18.12. Fluid temperature distribution along the tube with uniform wall temperature
19.1. Radiation surface properties
19.2. Emissive power of a black body at several temperatures
19.3. A cavity with a small hole (approximates a black body)
19.4. A small black body inside a cavity
19.5. Path of a photon between two gray surfaces
19.6. Schematic of a thermos wall
19.7. Thermocouple used to measure temperature
19.8. Effect of radiation heat transfer on measured temperature
19.9. Shielding a thermocouple to reduce radiation heat transfer error
19.10. Radiation between two bodies
19.11. Radiation between two arbitrary surfaces
19.12. Radiation heat transfer for concentric cylinders or spheres
. Total emittances for different surfaces
19.13. View Factors for three-dimensional geometries
19.14. View factor for aligned parallel rectangles
19.15. View factor for coaxial parallel disk
19.16. View factor for perpendicular rectangles with a common edge

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