Table of Contents
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1. Planning and Producing Documents
1.1Characteristics of Effective Technical Communication
1.1.1 Accuracy
1.1.2 Clarity
1.1.3 Conciseness
1.1.4 Coherence
1.1.5 Appropriateness
1.2 Document Purpose
1.2.1 Explicit Purposes
1.2.2 Implicit Purposes
1.2.3 Statement of Objective
1.3 Problem Statement
1.4 Audience
1.4.1 Audience Types and Level of Expertise
1.4.1.1 Writing for Experts
1.4.1.2 Writing for Technicians
1.4.1.3 Writing for Managers
1.4.1.4 Writing for Laypersons
1.4.1.5 Writing for a Mixed Audience
1.4.2 Audience Use of Document
1.4.3 Audience Attitudes Toward Writer and Subject
1.4.4 Document Density
1.4.4.1 Examples of Document Density
1.5 Organization
1.5.1 Developing a Detailed Outline
1.5.1.1 Informal Outline
1.5.1.2 Formal Outline
1.5.2 Subject Headings
1.6 Forecasting
1.7 Drafting a Technical Document
1.8 Revising Organization
1.9 Revising Content
1.10 Editing for Grammar and Style
1.11 Reviewing a Document
1.11.1 Peer Review
1.11.1.1 Requesting a Peer Review
1.11.1.2 Performing a Peer Review
1.11.2 Technical Review
1.11.3 Editorial Review
1.11.4 Managerial Review
1.12 Collaborative Writing
1.13 Legal and Ethical Issues
1.14 Document Design
1.14.1 Format
1.14.2 Layout
1.14.2.1 Example of Page Layout
1.15 Document Checklist
2. Document Types
2.1 Memoranda
2.2 Meeting Documents
2.2.1 Agenda
2.2.2 Minutes
2.3 Literature Reviews
2.4 Reports
2.4.1 Laboratory Reports
2.4.2 Research Reports
2.4.3 Research Articles
2.4.4 Design and Feasibility Reports
2.4.5 Progress Reports
2.4.6 Consulting Reports
2.4.7 Trip Reports
2.5 Letters
2.5.1 Job Application Letters
2.5.2 Acceptance Letters
2.5.3 Transmittal Letters
2.5.4 Letters of Inquiry
2.5.5 Technical-Information Letters and Memoranda
2.5.6 References and Letters of Recommendation
2.5.6.1 Obtaining Letters of Recommendation
2.5.6.2 Writing Letters of Recommendation
2.6 Proposals
2.6.1 General Structure
2.7 Press Releases
2.8 Task-Oriented Documents
2.8.1 Specifications
2.8.2 Documentation (Manuals)
2.8.2.1 Technical Documentation
2.8.2.2. User Documentation
2.8.3 Instructions and Procedures
2.8.4 Style Guides
2.9 Theses
2.9.1 The Thesis-Writing Process
2.9.2 Thesis Proposal
2.9.3 Format of the Thesis
2.9.4 Thesis Defense
2.10 Oral Presentations
2.10.1 Informal and Formal Oral Reports
2.10.2 Format of Oral Presentations
2.10.3 Overheads and Other Display Media
2.10.4 Delivery
2.10.5 Example of Materials for an Oral Presentation: A Design Review
2.11 Meetings
2.12 Electronic Documents
2.12.1 Electronic Mail
2.12.2 Web Sites
2.12.3 Hypertext
2.13 Résumés
2.13.1 Action Verbs for Résumés and Job Application Letters
2.14 Notes and Notebooks
3. Elements of Technical Documents
3.1 Sections and Subsections
3.2 Headings and Subheadings
3.3 Front Matter
3.3.1 Title and Title Page
3.3.2 Abstract
3.3.3 Table of Contents
3.3.4 List of Figures
3.3.5 List of Tables
3.3.6 List of Terms
3.3.7 Acknowledgments
3.4 Body
3.4.1 Introduction
3.4.1.1 Problem Statement
3.4.1.2 Purpose
3.4.1.3 Scope
3.4.1.4 Authorization
3.4.1.5 Sample Title and Introduction: Astronautical Engineering Design Report
3.4.1.6 Sample Title and Introduction: Mechanical Design Report
3.4.1.7 Sample Title and Introduction: Biology Report
3.4.1.8 Sample Title and Introduction: Information Systems Report
3.4.2 Background
3.4.3 Theory
3.4.4 Design and Decision Criteria
3.4.5 Materials and Apparatus
3.4.6 Procedure
3.4.7 Work Plan
3.4.8 Results
3.4.9 Discussion
3.4.10 Conclusion
3.4.10.1 Sample Short Conclusion: Biology
3.4.10.2 Sample Long Conclusion: Aero-Astro Engineering
3.4.11 Recommendations
3.5 End Matter
3.5.1 References
3.5.2 Appendixes
3.5.3 Indexes
4. Graphs and Figures
4.1 Reasons for Using Graphics
4.1.1 Condensing Text
4.1.2 Clarifying Relationships
4.1.3 Highlighting Patterns
4.2 Common Graphics
4.2.1 Working Drawings
4.2.2 Tables
4.2.3 Bar Graphs
4.2.4 Line Graphs
4.2.5 Pie Graphs
4.2.6 Illustrations
4.2.7 Diagrams
4.2.8 Photographs
4.2.9 Exploded Views
4.2.10 Schematic Diagrams
4.2.11 Flowcharts
4.2.12 Timetables (Gantt Charts)
4.3 General Guidelines for Graphics
4.3.1 Accurate Labeling
4.3.2 Numbering Graphics
4.3.3 Integrating Graphics and Text
5. Paragraphs
5.1 Paragraph Unity
5.1.1 Topic Sentences
5.2 Paragraph Coherence
5.2.1 Transitional Devices
5.2.1.1 Transitional Words and Phrases
5.2.1.2 Common Transitional Words and Phrases
5.2.2 Linking Pronouns
5.2.3 Repetition of Key Words
5.3 Paragraph Development
5.3.1 Exemplification
5.3.2 Narration
5.3.3 Process
5.3.4 Description
5.3.5 Comparison and Contrast
5.3.6 Analogy
5.3.7 Cause and Effect
5.3.8 Classification and Division
5.3.9 Definition
5.3.10 Analysis
5.3.11 Enumeration
6. Sentences
6.1 Stacked Modifiers and Nouns
6.2 Wordiness
6.2.1 Passive Voice and Active Voice
6.2.2 Nominalizations
6.2.3 Unnecessary Repetition
6.2.4 Unnecessary Words and Phrases
6.3 Overloaded Sentences
6.4 Sentence Fragments
6.5 Comma Splice
6.6 Fused Sentences
6.7 Stringy Sentences
6.8 Agreement
6.8.1 Subject-Verb Agreement
6.8.1.1 Two or More Nouns
6.8.1.2 Sentences Beginning with
There
6.8.1.3 Indefinite Pronouns
6.8.1.4 Collective Nouns
6.8.1.5 Quantifiers
6.8.2 Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
6.9 Lack of Parallelism
6.10 Choppy Sentences
6.11 Misplaced Modifiers
6.11.1 Interrupted Sentence Structure
6.11.2 Modifiers of Nouns
6.11.3 Adverb Modifiers
6.12 Dangling Modifiers
6.13 Double Negatives
6.14 Faulty Comparisons
6.14.1 Nonparallel Comparisons
6.14.2 Incomplete Comparisons
6.14.3 Ambiguous Comparisons
6.15 Inappropriate Shifts
6.15.1 Tense
6.15.2 Mood
6.15.3 Person
6.15.4 Voice
6.16 Sequence of tenses
6.17 Pronoun Reference
6.17.1 Unclear Pronoun Reference
6.17.2 Broad Pronoun Reference
6.18 Pronoun Case
7. Words
7.1 Abstract and General Language
7.2 Vague Language
7.3 Ornate Language
7.4 Technical Terms
7.5 Biased Language
7.5.1 Sexist Language
7.5.2 Ageist Language
7.5.3 Language Biased against People with Disabilities
7.5.4 Ethnically and Racially Biased Language
8. Punctuation
8.1 Periods
8.2 Commas
8.2.1 Introductory Elements
8.2.2 Coordinating Conjunctions Joining Independent Clauses
8.2.3 Elements in a Series
8.2.4 Coordinate Modifiers
8.2.5 Nonrestrictive Modifiers
8.2.6 Parenthetic Elements
8.2.7 Elliptical Constructions
8.2.8 Specialized Uses of Commas
8.2.9 Superfluous Commas
8.2.10 Placement of Commas with Other Punctuation
8.3 Colons
8.4 Semicolons
8.5 Question Marks
8.6 Exclamation Marks
8.7 Apostrophes
8.8 Quotation marks
8.9 Hyphens
8.10 Dashes
8.11 Parentheses
8.12 Brackets
9. Mechanics
9.1 Capitalization
9.2 Italics
9.3 Abbreviations
9.4 Acronyms
9.5 Numbers
9.6 Enumeration
9.7 Symbols
9.8 Equations
9.9 Spelling
10. Citing Sources and Listing References
10.1 Using the Language of Your Source Appropriately
10.2 Acknowledging Sources
10.3 Basic Structure and Formats of Citation Styles
10.3.1 Citing Online Sources
10.3.2 Specific Citation Styles
10.4 American Psychological Association (APA) Author-Date Style
10.4.1 General Structure
10.4.2 Guidelines for APA Parenthetical Citation
10.4.2.1 Name of Author Included in Text
10.4.2.2 Placement of Parenthetical Citations
10.4.2.3 Page Numbers
10.4.2.4 Quotations
10.4.2.5 One Work by Two Authors
10.4.2.6 One Work by Three, Four, or Five Authors
10.4.2.7 One Work by Six or More Authors
10.4.2.8 More Than One Work by the Same Author
10.4.2.9 More Than One Work by Different Authors in the Same Parenthetical Citation
10.4.2.10 Two Works by the Same Author in the Same Year
10.4.2.11 Two Works by Different Authors with the Same Last Name
10.4.2.12 Organizational Author
10.4.2.13 Unknown Author
10.4.2.14 Personal Communication and Other "Nonrecoverable" Information
10.4.3 Use of Endnotes
10.4.4 APA Reference List
10.4.4.1 Content Guidelines
10.4.4.2 Page Format
10.4.4.3 General Structure of Entry
10.4.4.4 Books
10.4.4.5 Journal Articles
10.4.4.6 Electronic Sources
10.5 Modern Language Assocation (MLA) Author-Page Style
10.5.1 General Structure
10.5.2 Guidelines for MLA Parenthetical Citation
10.5.2.1 Placement of Parenthetical Citations
10.5.2.2 Name of Author Included in Text
10.5.2.3 Page Numbers
10.5.2.4 Quotations
10.5.2.5 One Work by Two or Three Authors
10.5.2.6 One Work by Four or More Authors
10.5.2.7 More Than One Work by the Same Author
10.5.2.8 More Than One Work by Different Authors in the Same Citation
10.5.2.9 Two Works by Different Authors with the Same Last Name
10.5.2.10 Organizational Author
10.5.2.11 Unknown Author
10.5.2.12 Personal Communication and Other "Nonrecoverable" Information
10.5.3 Use of Endnotes or Footnotes
10.5.3.1 Endnotes
10.5.3.2 Footnotes
10.5.4 MLA List of Works Cited
10.5.4.1 Content Guidelines
10.5.4.2 Page Format
10.5.4.3 General Structure of Entry
10.5.4.4 Books
10.5.4.5 Journal Articles
10.5.4.6 Electronic Sources
10.6
Chicago Manual of Style
(CMS) Note Citations
10.6.1 General Structure
10.6.2 Guidelines for CMS Note Citation
10.6.2.1 Placement of Superscript Notes
10.6.2.2 Page Numbers
10.6.2.3 Quotations
10.6.2.4 Citing More Than One Work by the Same Author
10.6.2.5 More Than One Work by Different Authors in the Same Note
10.6.2.6 Two Works by Different Authors with the Same Last Name
10.6.2.7 Personal Communication and Other "Nonrecoverable" Information
10.6.3 Use of Endnotes or Footnotes
10.6.4 CMS Note List
10.6.4.1 Content Guidelines
10.6.4.2 Page Format
10.6.4.3 General Structure of Entry
10.6.4.4 Books
10.6.4.5 Journal Articles
10.7 Council of Biology Editors (CBE) Citation-Sequence System
10.7.1 General Structure
10.7.2 Guidelines for CBE Citation-Sequence System
10.7.2.1 Name of Author Included in Text
10.7.2.2 Placement of Superscript Note Numbers
10.7.2.3 More Than One Work in the Same Citation
10.7.2.4 Personal Communication and Other "Nonrecoverable" Information
10.7.3 Use of Endnotes or Footnotes
10.7.4 CBE Numbered List of References
10.7.4.1 Content Guidelines
10.7.4.2 Page Format
10.7.4.3 General Structure of Entry
10.7.4.4 Books
10.7.4.5 Journal Articles
10.7.4.6 Electronic Sources
10.8 IEEE Citation-Sequence System
10.8.1 General Structure
10.8.2 Guidelines for IEEE Citation-Sequence System
10.8.2.1 Placement of Note Numbers
10.8.2.2 Name of Author Included in Text
10.8.2.3 More Than One Work in the Same Citation
10.8.2.4 Personal Communication and Other "Nonrecoverable" Information
10.8.3 Use of Endnotes or Footnotes
10.8.4 IEEE Numbered List of References
10.8.4.1 Content Guidelines
10.8.4.2 Page Format
10.8.4.3 Books
10.8.4.4 Journal Articles
10.8.4.5 Electronic Sources
11. Parts of Speech
11.1 Nouns
11.1.1 Countable and Uncountable Nouns
11.1.1.1 Countable Nouns
11.1.1.2 Uncountable (Mass) Nouns
11.1.2 Other Grammatical Characteristics of Nouns
11.1.2.1 Gender
11.1.2.2 Number
11.1.2.3 Person
11.1.3 Proper Nouns
11.1.4 Possession
11.2 Pronouns
11.2.1 Pronoun Antecedent
11.2.2 Personal Pronouns
11.2.3 Relative Pronouns
11.2.4 Demonstrative Pronouns
11.2.5 Interrogative Pronouns
11.2.6 Indefinite Pronouns
11.2.7 Reciprocal Pronouns
11.2.8 Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns
11.3 Verbs
11.3.1 Verb Tense
11.3.1.1 Simple Present Tense
11.3.1.2 Simple Past Tense
11.3.1.3 Future Tense
11.3.1.4 Present Perfect Tense
11.3.1.5 Past Perfect Tense
11.3.1.6 Future Perfect Tense
11.3.1.7 Progressive Form
11.3.2 Voice
11.3.3 Mood
11.3.3.1 Indicative Mood
11.3.3.2 Imperative Mood
11.3.3.3 Subjunctive Mood
11.3.4 Auxiliary Verbs
11.3.5 Modal Auxiliaries
11.3.6 Nonfinite Verbs
11.3.6.1 Infinitives
11.3.6.2 Gerunds
11.3.7 Verb Forms
11.3.7.1 Base Form
11.3.7.2 Present Participle
11.3.7.3 Past Participle
11.3.7.4 Irregular Verbs
11.3.8 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
11.4 Adjectives
11.4.1 Determiners
11.4.1.1 Demonstrative Adjectives
11.4.1.2 Possessive Adjectives
11.4.1.3 Quantifiers
11.4.2 Participial Adjectives
11.4.2.1 Active Participial Adjectives
11.4.2.2 Passive Participial Adjectives
11.4.3 Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
11.4.3.1 Comparative
11.4.3.2 Superlative
11.5 Adverbs
11.5.1 Attitude Adverbs
11.5.2 Sentence Adverbs
11.5.3 Time Adverbs
11.5.4 Manner Adverbs
11.5.5 Quantity Adverbs
11.5.6 Comparative and Superlative Adverbs
11.5.6.1 Comparative
11.5.6.2 Superlative
11.6 Prepositions
11.7 Conjunctions
11.7.1 Coordinating Conjunctions
11.7.2 Correlative Conjunctions
11.7.3 Subordinating Conjunctions
11.7.4 Conjunctive Adverbs
11.8 Articles
11.8.1 Definite Articles
11.8.2 Indefinite Articles
11.8.2.1 Choosing between
a
and
an
11.8.3 Usage Rules for Articles
11.8.3.1 Is an Article Necessary?
11.8.3.2 Which Article is Appropriate?
11.8.3.3 Articles and Demonstrative and Possessive Adjectives
11.8.3.4 Articles and Proper Nouns
12. Parts of Sentences
12.1 Subjects
12.2 Predicates
12.3 Objects
12.3.1 Direct Objects
12.3.2 Indirect Objects
12.3.3 Objects of Prepositions
12.4 Modifiers
12.4.1 Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Modifiers
12.5 Phrases
12.5.1 Appositive Phrases
12.5.2 Participial Phrases
12.6 Clauses
12.6.1 Independent Clauses
12.6.1.1 The Main Clause
12.6.2 Dependent Clauses
12.6.2.1 Noun Clauses
12.6.2.2 Adjective Clauses
12.6.2.3 Adverbial Clauses
13. Sentence Types and Word Order
13.1 Sentence Types Classified by Structure
13.1.1 Simple Sentences
13.1.2 Compound Sentences
13.1.3 Complex Sentences
13.2 Sentence Types Classified by Purpose
13.2.1 Declarative Sentences
13.2.2 Interrogative Sentences
13.2.3 Imperative Sentences
13.3 Word Order
13.3.1 Ordinary Word Order
13.3.2 Inverted Word Order
13.4 Placement of Phrases and Clauses
13.4.1 Old Information before New
13.4.2 Important Information in Main Clause
14. Usage Glossary
15. Writer's Resources
15.1 Style Guides
15.1.1 General
15.1.2 Technical
15.1.2.1 Astronomy and Physics
15.1.2.2 Biology and Medicine
15.1.2.3 Chemistry
15.1.2.4 Electrical Engineering
15.1.2.5 Geology and Meteorology
15.1.2.6 Mathematics
15.1.3 Electronic Sources
15.2 Dictionaries
15.2.1 Desk Dictionaries
15.2.2 Unabridged Dictionaries
15.2.3 ESL Dictionaries
15.2.4 Technical Dictionaries
15.3 Grammar and Usage
15.4 General Guides to Effective Style
15.5 Guides to Scientific Writing
15.6 Guides for Effective Graphs and Text Formats
15.7 Information on Specific Topics
15.7.1 Nomenclature, Abbreviations, and Symbols
15.7.2 Tables and Units of Measurement
15.7.3 Maps and Place Names
15.8 Useful Tables
Common Writing Problems for Non-Native Speakers of English
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